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What is an OS?
Every computer needs an Operating System.
At the most basic level an Operating System (OS) is the interface between you,
your software applications, and your computer hardware.
Functions
Operating Systems interpret user commands
and instructions (like typing on the keyboard or clicking with the mouse) and
send requests to the proper application or device. An OS not only provides a
user interface (text or graphic) to access/organize/manipulate/store data, but
can also provide security and multitasking capabilities. Generally the OS is
made up of a few core files with additional files for extended functionality and
backward capability.
Primary OS functions:
- Communication (methods of
communication) with hardware/software
- User
interface
- Input/Output
(standard,
devices)
- Add, delete,
move, store programs and data
Some important concepts to know about an
operating system are:
- Minimum hardware
requirements and recommendations (memory, processor, disk space, input/output
devices)
- Boot files
(to make an emergency
boot disk) and
sequence
- Important
files and setup
information
- New OS
features
- File system
structure
- Compatible
applications
Components
Know how to find and use the following
Windows system components thoroughly:
- Control Panel
- My Computer
- Windows
Explorer
- System Tools
and
Utilities
- Internet
Explorer
(customize)
- HELP
Remember: There are usually at least
3 ways to accomplish any task in any version of Windows. The exam may only offer
you ONE. You will need to know multiple ways to accomplish tasks and find
things.
Help:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/maintain/hlpusr.asp
Command Prompt (DOS)
For the most part, you will not need to
know DOS as an operating system for this exam. You will, however, need to know
how to use Command Prompt (or Command Line) utilities and execute commands from
the Command Prompt – especially for troubleshooting (booting from an
emergency boot disk, for example).
DOS System Files
History: DOS is a 16-bit
(FAT16),
text-based interface OS for file and disk management, now it is integrated as
the MS-DOS Command Prompt application in Windows.
Memory Management
DOS is also quite particular about the
amount of memory your system has. For more information, read up on the
DOS memory model.
Architecture
To boot, DOS needs three core files and two
configuration files, found in the root directory, loaded by the boot sector. If
any of the three core files are missing, you will get the error "Missing
operating system."
- IO.SYS is a core, hidden
file that contains basic I/O device drivers and controls the boot process,
including loading the files that follow
it
- MSDOS.SYS is a
core, hidden file that contains the DOS
kernel (the main
part of the OS) code. This file is the interface between applications and
hardware drivers held in IO.SYS. (**NOTE** in Windows, this file is a text file,
NOT the kernel of the Windows
OS)
- CONFIG.SYS is a
configuration text file that contains commands to load device drivers, memory
managers, and system hardware configuration settings. These include DEVICE= and
DEVICEHIGH=, for
example.
- COMMAND.COM
is a core file that provides the user interface, sometimes called the shell or
Dosshell. It interprets and executes what is entered at the command prompt.
- AUTOEXEC.BAT is a
configuration text file that holds a list of boot DOS commands, like PROMPT
$P$G, some TSRs, and
the MSCDEX drive label to read the CD-ROM.
DOS needs only:
- IO.SYS
- MSDOS.SYS
- COMMAND.COM
Additional Driver Files in DOS
directory:
- HIGHMEM.SYS – Makes
extended memory
available
- EMM386.SYS
– Simulates expanded memory, access to
UMA for device
drivers and TSRs
- MOUSE.SYS
- SMARTDRV.EXE
– Disk
caching
- ANSI.SYS
– Display, cursor, and keyboard
assignments
- POWER.EXE
– Power saving support
Command Prompt Utilities
You should practice using the following, or
at least have an idea how and when to use them:
- FDISK.EXE
- FORMAT.EXE
- SYS.EXE
- EDIT.EXE
- HIMEM.SYS
- EMM386.EXE
- SMARTDRV.EXE
(for disk
caching)
- MSD.EXE
- MSCDEX.EXE (for CD
ROM
support)
- MEM.EXE
- ATTRIB.EXE
- DEFRAG.EXE
(also, from within
Windows)
- DELTREE.EXE
- EXPAND.EXE
- LABEL.EXE
- SCANDISK.EXE
- SHARE.EXE
- EXTRACT.EXE
(for those CAB files)
Command Prompt Commands and Syntax
Helpful to know first:
- /? – Shows all the
switches for any given
command
- Wildcards
– asterisk and question mark
- ? - Replaces
any single character (eg,
??.sys)
- *
- Replaces any number of characters (eg, *.* finds all
files)
DIR – Shows the
contents of a directory
- /P – Pause after each
screen
- /W –
Wide list format
CD –
Changes directories
MD – Make (create) a
directory
RD – Remove
directory/subdirectory
REN – Rename file [old name] [new
name]
DEL – Delete files
DELTREE – Delete entire tree
(including subdirectories, files, and directory)
TREE – display the directory
structure with all subdirectories
- | more – displays one
screen at a time
MOVE –
Move files
SYS – Copies the 3 DOS system files
to a partition/drive, making it bootable
COPY – Copy files and directories
[from] [to]
XCOPY – Directory-level copy (with
extra switches)
- /S – Copies system
files
- /E –
Copies empty subdirectories as
well
- /H –
Copies hidden files as
well
- /V –
Verifies each file as it is
written
DISKCOPY – Copies
entire disk
ATTRIB – sets Attributes of a
file
- +/-R – Read
Only
- +/-A -
Archive
- +/-S -
System
- +/-H -
Hidden
VER - Displays the MS-DOS
version number
SETVER – Displays or updates the
current version table
MEM - Displays the amount of used and free
memory
- /C – will show
programs loaded into the first 1MB of memory (conventional, upper, reserved,
extended)
DOS Commands
DOS for Generation Y
by Hal Bennick
Checking Drives
CHKDSK - Checks the disk status and
displays a status report (Can fix disk errors)
- /F – Fixes/Repairs
lost clusters/chains
SCANDISK -
Starts Microsoft Scandisk, a disk analysis and repair tool, that checks a drive
for errors and corrects any problems it finds
- Note: Key in
troubleshooting
DEFRAG –
defragmentation of a hard drive
EDIT – enables editing
UNFORMAT – unformats a
disk
- /TEST - Lists all the
files/directories that would be recovered by
UNFORMAT
UNDELETE – for
recovering deleted files,
- Only works if they
haven’t been overwritten since their
deletion
MSCDEX – CD ROM
driver support
SCANREG – Scans registry
FORMAT – For (re)creating file
systems
- [drive letter] /S –
makes the drive bootable
(system)
FDISK – For
(re)creating partitions (see below)
Partitioning Drives
Partitions are either primary (bootable) or
extended (not bootable, logical drives). The primary partition is always C:.
Your primary partition stores the OS and the Master Boot Record
(MBR). FDISK will only
allow you to create ONE primary partition, even though you can have up to 4
(dual-booting).
If you have a large hard disk, and the
system can only see (for example) 2.1 GB or 8.4 GB, that is a BIOS limitation or
file system limitation. The maximum partition size (FAT16 – 2.1 GB; FAT32
– 2 TB) refers to the primary partition only.
NOTE: One drive, one primary
partition. Two drives, multiple partitions.
Read more on
FDISK
Windows 3.x
Historical Information only: Windows 3.x,
while not a true operating system, is a 16-bit
(FAT16)
GUI (Graphical User Interface) for DOS. Windows 3.11 (Windows for Workgroups)
also provides peer-to-peer networking functionality (sharing resources).
Windows 3.x required a 386 with at least 2
MB RAM, DOS 3.1, a floppy drive, and 6 MB of free disk space. Its main
components are the File Manager and the Program Manager (interface file is
PROGMAN.INI).
To start Windows 3.x, DOS has to boot and
the DEVICE=HIMEM.SYS must be loaded. From there, WIN.COM is loaded (typing WIN
at the command prompt or adding WIN to the last line of AUTOEXEC.BAT) which
executes the GUI and the kernel of Windows 3.x:
- KRNL386.EXE
- USER.EXE
- GDI.EXE
- SYSTEM.INI
- WIN.INI
- PROGMAN.EXE
(Program Manager – shell program)
NOTE: The main INI files were
SYSTEM.INI, WIN.INI and PROTOCOL.INI. The Registry replaces these in Windows
9x.
Windows 9x
In contrast to Windows 3.x, Windows 95 was
a true OS. It is a 32-bit (FAT32) OS with backward compatibility for FAT16 files
and programs. Windows 95 had two releases – OSR1 and OSR2. 95 OSR2 and 98
allow hard drive partitions greater than 2 GB, and fully integrate Internet
Explorer. It provides a GUI, a common user interface, and a customizable
interface. Using a swap file, it can use
virtual memory.
It also allows data sharing, greater networking abilities, and multitasking.
And, most importantly, Windows 95 and 98 provide plug and play (PnP) support
(Plug n Play is another way of saying built-in driver support.)
- Windows 9x still needs
DOS.
- Windows 9x
supports extended file names up to 255 characters in
length.
- Windows 9x
can run 16-bit or 32-bit applications (with the DLL files for both to maintain
backward capability)
Worth noting is:
CONFIG.SYS in Windows 9x replaces
SYSTEM.INI (resources) in Windows 3.x and WIN.INI replaces AUTOEXEC.BAT
(settings), though both files are still there (even in Windows 2000) for
backward capability. Believe it or not SYSTEM.INI is still a required file to
run Windows 9x.
Installing Windows 9x
Windows 95 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations
|
Min Required
|
Recommended
|
Processor
|
386DX
|
Pentium
|
Memory
|
4-8 MB
|
16-32 MB
|
Display
|
VGA
|
SVGA
|
Disk Space
|
50-55 MB
|
200 MB
|
Others
|
Floppy drive, keyboard
|
CDROM, mouse
|
Windows 98 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations
|
Min Required
|
Recommended
|
Processor
|
486DX
|
Pentium
|
Memory
|
24 MB
|
32-64 MB
|
Display
|
VGA
|
SVGA
|
Disk Space
|
225 MB
|
400 MB
|
Others
|
Floppy drive, keyboard
|
CDROM, mouse
|
Installation Process
- Prepare a DOS Boot Disk, that
includes:
- FORMAT
- FDISK
- EDIT
- SYS
- ATTRIB
- CONFIG.SYS
- AUTOEXEC.BAT
- From a Command Prompt, type
SETUP
- SCANDISK runs first, then you get the
setup window
- Checks the system for the minimum
requirements
- End User License Agreement (EULA)
– and the pleasure of agreeing to
it
- Select directory (default is
C:\WINDOWS)
- Choose Setup Type
- Typical (default option,
for most
desktops)
- Portable
(for laptops, installs briefcase, for
example)
- Compact (if
limited disk
space)
- Custom (for
experienced users)
- Fill in the Windows Product Key (I recommend
writing it right on the CD itself!)
- Fill in
user information: name, company
- You will be
prompted whether to analyze your computer before the install or not (devices,
hardware detection)
(You will be prompted through a series of
pop up windows for particular components, depending on which setup type you are
installing. If Custom was chosen, you can select the components individually
here.)
- Prompt for Networking information and options (whether
or not you have a
NIC)
- Prompt
to make an Emergency Boot (Startup) Disk
- And
now you wait....... while a big white line fills up and becomes a big blue line
(i.e., the big INSTALL) and you get to read the promos windows about
Windows.
- Finishing Setup – Restarts
computer
- You will be prompted for your password
to Microsoft Networking
- PnP Hardware will be set
up
- Control Panel settings, including Time Zone
and Printers can be selected and/or installed
next.
- And now you’ve installed Windows 95
or 98.
See also:
All MS OSes in 1500 Words or Less
Window 98 Unleashed
Failed Install
If for any reason the Windows Setup crashes
and burns, you will need these three files to recover from a failed
install:
- SETUPLOG.TXT
- DETLOG.TXT
- DETCRASH.LOG
Emergency Startup Disk
You’ve will need to have at least ONE
of these laying around for that one time that everything is utterly pooched
(technical jargon for screwed up beyond recognition). It might be you or it
might be a user that got it to that point, but you have to be ready to fix
it.
To create a Startup disk you
can:
- Make one when installing
the OS, or
- Go to
Control Panel -> Add/Remove Programs -> Startup Disk -> Create
Disk.
Then put a HD (high density 1.44 MB) floppy
disk in the A: drive and click OK. The files on the Startup disk
include:
- ATTRIB.EXE
- CHKDSK.EXE
- COMMAND.COM
- DRVSPACE.BIN
(disk
compression)
- EBD.SYS
(Emergency Boot Disk
identifier)
- EDIT.COM
- FDISK.EXE
- FORMAT.EXE
- IO.SYS
- MSDOS.SYS
- REGEDIT.EXE
(Registry
editor)
- SCANDISK.EXE
- SYS.COM
- UNINSTAL.EXE
(Removes Windows 95)
Note: And EBD (Emergency Boot Disk)
is not the same as an ERD (Emergency Repair Disk) – both will be covered
later.
Note: To edit AUTOEXEC.BAT,
CONFIG.SYS, WIN.INI,and SYSTEM.INI, you go to Start -> Run, and type
SYSEDIT.
Upgrading to Windows 9x
Before upgrading to Windows 95 from Windows
3.x or DOS, you should edit CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT, removing any
unnecessary entries and
TSRs.
When upgrading, you will be asked if you
want to save the system files. If you do save your system files, they will be
renamed, but you can uninstall them from Control Panel -> Add/Remove
Programs
Read more on Upgrading to Windows 98:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win98/upgr98.asp
Boot Sequence of Windows 9x
To boot Windows 95, there are 4 stages:
Hardware/BIOS, to
Real Mode, to
Protected Mode,
to the OS and desktop initialization, in this order:
BIOS
- POST
– Power On Self
Test
- PnP BIOS
– assigning system resources (without
conflicts)
- IPL
or
Bootstrap
– initiates the program to load the OS into
memory
Real Mode (16 bit)
- IO.SYS – takes over
from BIOS, “Starting Windows
95...”
- MSDOS.SYS
– IO.SYS processes MSDOS.SYS and parameters in
AUTOEXEC.BAT
- CONFIG.SYS
(not needed, 95 defaults override
it)
- COMMAND.COM
– Command Line interface (processes requests before they are sent directly
to the processor _ a
translator)
- AUTOEXEC.BAT
– COMMAND.COM processes AUTOEXEC.BAT, to load TSRs and DOS applications
(not needed, 95 defaults override it)
Protected Mode (32 bit)
- WIN.COM (automatically
loads now by default)
- VMM32.VxD –
virtual machine manager
- SYSTEM.INI –
loads DEVICE= parameters
OS and Desktop (16-bit and 32-bit
for backward compatibility)
- KERNEL32.DLL, KRNL386.EXE
(kernel)
- GDI32.EXE,
GDI.EXE
- USER32.EXE,
USER.EXE
- EXPLORER.EXE
(interface)
Startup Menu
If Window 9x failed to boot properly
previously, if Windows detects a problem, or if you press F8 while it is
loading, you will go to the Startup Menu.
- Normal – no troubleshooting
help
- Logged – bootlog.txt to find where
the failure occurred
- Safe Mode (F5) –
default after problems – does not process the Registry, CONFIG.SYS,
AUTOEXEC.BAT, SYSTEM.INI, drivers, or extended peripherals
- Safe Mode with network support (F6) –
Safe mode but loads NIC drivers, protocols, and
clients
- Step-by-step Confirmation (SHIFT F8)
– choose which commands are executed during the boot
sequence
- Command Prompt only – when Safe
Mode fails
- Safe Mode Command Prompt (SHIFT F5)
– to reinstall from scratch
- DOS
(F4)
For example, if you are having trouble on
Bootup, try Step-by-Step Confirmation, which goes through these steps, in this
order:
- Create BOOTLOG.TXT? -
Y/N
- Load CONFIG.SYS?
- Y/N
- Load
HIGHMEM.SYS? -
Y/N
- Start EMM386.EXE?
– Y/N
- Start
SETVER.EXE? -
Y/N
- Load DISPLAY.SYS?
- Y/N
- Load
COUNTRY.SYS? -
Y/N
- Load DBLBUFF.SYS?
- Y/N
- Load
IFSHLP.SYS? -
Y/N
- Load
AUTOEXEC.BAT? - Y/N (start up command files)
...
- Load WIN? -
Y/N
- Load WIN Drivers?
- Y/N
- Enable Network
Support - Y/N
- Start
Display - Y/N ... (Windows Start up
screen)
- (more device
drivers) -
Y/N
- MSMOUSE.VXD-
Y/N
Registry
The Registry’s function is to store
system PnP and hardware configuration information and user-specific details. The
Registry replaces the .INI files of Windows 3.x, and stores the system hardware
and configuration information in the /WINDOWS/ folder. The Registry is divided
into two files, both read-only and hidden:
- SYSTEM.DAT – system
settings
- USER.DAT
– users settings
The Registry, though resembling a directory
tree structure, is a database of keys: each key has a value or set of
subkeys. You can edit and access the Registry using REGEDIT.EXE.
Top-level Keys:
- HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE –
common hardware
settings
- HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG
– current config of
hardware
- HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT
– file
associations
- HKEY_DYN_DATA
– hardware devices (info held in
RAM)
- HKEY_USERS
– config information of all users ever logged into the
system
- HKEY_
CURRENT_USER – config information for current
user
You can search, add a key, add or change a
value, delete a key or value, or rename keys and values.
Go to Start -> Run ->
Regedit
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
Windows automatically backups up the
registry every time it is booted. The previous version of the registry files are
SYSTEM.DA0 and USER.DA0.
The Registry can be used for
troubleshooting and performance enhancement in Windows 9x.
Read more on Corrupted 9x
Registry:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win98/recreg.asp
Navigation
Navigating through Windows 9x becomes
second nature after awhile, but you will need to know specific details of where
to find things in Windows. So, take some notes on how to get to (and what you
can do when you get there):
- Windows Explorer –
folder structure and files (Folders replace DOS
directories)
- My
Computer – floppy drive, hard drive, CD ROM, Control Panel, Dialup
Networking,
Printers
- My Computer
–> Properties – System Properties, Device Manager, Hardware
Profiles Configuration – ** Getting System Information
**
- Disk Cleanup
Utilities, Error-checking, Backup,
Defragmentation
- Scheduled
Tasks
- Control Panel
– Telephony Services, Add/Remove Programs, Add/Remove Software, System,
Mouse, Display,
Networking...
- Making
Shortcuts
- Changing/Displaying
Properties
- Hidden
file extensions (in List view: View -> Options ->Hide MSDOS file
extensions)
- Folder,
file and print
sharing
- Finding
folders/files
(Search)
- Task Manager
98 My Computer:
98 System Tools:
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
Windows File Management
Know how to:
- Create, move, rename, and
delete
Folders
- Create, move,
rename, and delete
Files
- Change the
appearance of a folder (icons, list, details, reorder by name,
date...)
- Drag and
drop folders, single files, multiple
files
- Create
shortcuts
Note:
- Folder names cannot contain
the characters: \ / : * ? " < > |
- Filenames cannot
contain the characters: \ / : * ? " < > | and [
]
Windows Keyboard Shortcuts to know
- CTRL A – select
all
- CTRL C -
copy
- CTRL V -
paste
- CTRL X -
cut
- CTRL Z –
undo
- ALT TAB –
toggle between open
applications
- ALT
PRINTSCREEN – capture top window open (including error
messages)
- Windows Key
– start
menu
- SHIFT click
– selects all between two
clicks
- CTRL click
– selects just those
clicked
- RIGHT CLICK
– reveal menu selections for any file, folder,
shortcut...
- CTRL ALT
DEL – launches Task Manager (** not in NT or 2000
though)
Backups
- Copy – copies
selected folders and files to the backup device without turning off archive
bit
- Full
– backs up every folder and file, turns off archive
bit
- Incremental
– backs up only folders and files with the archive bit on, and turns off
the archive
bit
- Differential
– backs up only folders and files with the archive bit on, but
doesn’t turn the archive bit
off.
Configuring Windows 9x
Drivers
- Plug n Play (Configuration
Manager, PC BIOS, Registry, Bus and port emulators, Resource allocation, setup
and device
installer)
- Control
Panel -> Add New Hardware
Wizard
- Device
Manager -> Resources (IRQ,
I/O)
- Right-click
Properties
- Advanced
properties
Printers
To install a printer in Windows 9x/NT/2000,
go to Setting -> Printers -> Add Printer, or My Computer
-> Printers, or Control Panel -> Printers, and walk through
the Print Wizard.
- View Print
Queue
- Add
Local/Network
Printer
- Port LPT1
- Install Printer
Drivers
- Changing
default printer and other printer settings Printers ->
Properties
Note: If print jobs are garbled
check Spool Settings:
Enhanced Metafile
(EMF – independent of printer type) and RAW (printer-specific) are file
formats for print jobs sent to the
spool. Printer
Properties -> Spool Settings -> Details
Memory Management
- Real Mode –
single task environment
(DOS)
- Protected
Mode – virtual machine created to access extended memory; memory and
hardware are “protected” from direct access from applications by the
OS (allocating processor time and
memory)
- Conventional
Memory – 0-640KB (runs
DOS)
- Upper Memory
Area (UMA) – 640–1024KB (video RAM, BIOS) – made up of
Upper Memory Blocks
(UMB)
- Extended
memory (XMS) – everything above 1MB (1024KB): Pentiums can support up
to 4 GB of
memory.
- High
Memory Area (HMA) – 1024-1088KB – first 64KB of extended
memory
At the Command Prompt, type “MEM
/C” to see your memory information.
HIMEM.SYS enables Windows 9x to use
extended memory. It must be loaded in the CONFIG.SYS file, like this:
DEVICE=C:\<DOS OR WINDOWS
directory>\HIGHMEM.SYS
EMM386.EXE enables DOS to access
XMS.
Windows 9x Utilities
SMARTDrive is used to improve disk
performance with RAM and read/write caching.
Virtual Memory,
using hard disk space as simulated memory, in Windows 9x is configured in My
Computer -> Properties -> System -> Performance. Do not disable
virtual memory.
Windows 98:
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
Start -> Programs -> Accessories
-> System Tools ->
- Disk Clean up
– deletes .tmp files, empties recycle bin and Temporary Internet
Files
- Defrag –
defragments a hard
drive
- System
Monitor is a Windows utility that tracks system
resources(troubleshooting)
- MS
System Information: for reading configuration and registry
information
- Dr. Watson –
captures debugging information when an application fault
occurs.
- Maintenance
Wizard – used to schedule tasks like backup, defrag, disk cleanup,
etc.
- Backup
– from the Maintenance Wizard
Troubleshooting Windows 9x
Troubleshooting procedures
- Gather information and ask
questions
- Be
prepared
- Be calm
- Take your time
- Concentrate
- Be flexible
(Don’t assume anything)
- Consult (find
resources)
- Know when
to give in
- Cure the
problem not the symptom
- Do not create new
problems in
process
- DOCUMENT
everything you do
See Also:
Introduction to Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting the Boot Process
Troubleshooting Display Issues
Troubleshooting Windows 9x http://www.annoyances.org/win98/_index.html
http://www.bootdisk.com/swapfile.htm
http://www.winplanet.com/winplanet/reports/620/1/
http://www.techtutorials.com/Windows_9x/Troubleshooting/
MS How to’s:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/httasks.asp
Common Errors and Problems
Symptom
|
Diagnosis
|
“No OS Found”
|
Corrupt or missing IO.SYS and/or
MSDOS.SYS.
“SYS C:” restores
them
|
“SYSTEM DISK INVALID
“
|
Missing IO.SYS
“SYS C:” to
restore
|
“Invalid VxD dynamic link call from
IFSMGR(03)”
|
Missing MSDOS.SYS
“SYS C:” to
restore
|
“Missing COMMAND.COM” or
“Bad or missing command interpreter”
may be looking for PATH
|
COMMAND.COM missing or
corrupt.
Use an EBD and copy the file to the C:\
or “SYS C”: to restore
|
|
Same memory allocated for more than one
application
|
Windows Protection Errors
|
Device driver failures or conflicts in
CONFIG.SYS and SYSTEM.INI
Run SYSEDIT and start disabling
DEVICE=
|
Fatal Exception Errors
|
A software or hardware error or illegal
instruction that windows cannot contain.
|
Illegal Operation Errors
(My favorite peeve)
|
Illegal Operation errors or 'program
crashes' are actually invalid page faults (IPF). The error message is similar
to:
'This program has performed an illegal
operation and will be shut down.
Usually transitory, but see below if
not
|
Windows not booting
completely
|
Try Safe Mode (without drivers, first, in
case of conflicts) – which bypasses AUTOEXEC.BAT and
CONFIG.SYS
|
Hard drive errors
|
Run CHKDSK and SCANDISK
|
Error in CONFIG.SYS, line
xxx
|
Put a semi-colon at the beginning of the
line to bypass it. If everything works, remove the line completely.
|
SYSTEM.INI not found, and Windows
won’t boot
|
Restore from EBD.
|
Won’t boot to GUI
|
Corrupted
SWAP file. Boot
into Safe Mode (F5) and disable Virtual Memory (temporarily – remember to
enable it as soon as things are working!!).
Usually when running out of HDD
space.
|
Corrupted registry
|
Restore from backup SYSTEM.DA0 and
USER.DA0
|
Invalid Page Faults
“This program has performed an
Illegal Operation and will be shut down.” (aka, this is why we HATE
Windows at least sometimes).
A key part of troubleshooting IPFs is to
determine how widespread the problem is:
- Is the problem reproducible
or does it occur at random?
- Does the problem
occur only in the current application or in other applications as well?
- Are there specific,
known issues about the application that describe your problem? (check the
manufacturers website – maybe a known
bug)
- Does the problem
happen only with a particular file handled by that application?
- Does the problem
occur only at a particular time, such as while
printing?
If you cannot make the
error occur again, you can assume you have solved the problem. If the error
occurs in other applications, most probably the fault is not with the
application but with Windows, a component of Windows or a piece of software that
is running in the background. Check with the program vendor's site if there are
known issues with the application that may cause IPFs under specific
circumstances.
If the IPF is specific to a certain file
opened by this application, the file may be too large, or damaged.
Read More on General Windows
Troubleshooting:
http://www.windrivers.com/tech/troubleshoot/index.htm
Study Break:
Windows 98 Easter Egg Hunt
Common Problems
Some things to always check, especially if
any changes have been made recently, are:
- Check connectors and cables
- Check port, device
- Check BIOS
- Check software
configuration (drivers, etc)
- Check for conflicts
- Reseat components,
if possible
- Virus
check
New Hard drive causing problems?
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win98/recreg.asp
Troubleshooting Printer Connections and Configurations
- Printer not working:
switched on, plugged in, online, check cables
- Paper jam: cheap
paper, wrong type, stored improperly, loaded improperly
- Output corruption:
printer driver, check setup
- Poor quality:
toner/ribbon low, cheap/wrong paper
- Laser memory errors:
not enough RAM
- Blank
pages: OPC drum, corona wire improperly seated.
See also:
Introduction to Troubleshooting How Printers Work Managing Hardware with Windows Device Manager The Service Call Troubleshooting the Boot Process Troubleshooting Display Issues
Windows NT 4.0
This A+ OS exam doesn’t cover much of
NT, but you need to know about it as a legacy OS. I’ve included a bunch of
information that applies to both Windows NT and 2000, and will help you study
– even if you don’t get many questions on this section in the exam.
You will need to know about upgrading
to/from NT, NT File System, and the differences between NT and 9x/2000. The rest
just helps to know.
Note: every time I just say NT (and
the exam too), I mean NT 4.0.
History of NT
In 1993, Windows NT (New Technology,
supposedly) 3.1 was introduced. The design requirements for this operating
system included:
- Extensibility--designed in
modules, which can be replaced or upgraded without a complete overhaul of the
system, only of the section of code
concerned
- Portability--can
run on RISC or
CISC-based systems (at
the time, more important than now. Reduced Instruction-Set Computing machines
were the powerhouses
then)
- Reliability and
Robustness--refers to the ability of the OS to insulate applications and
processes from each other so that one may crash without affecting the others and
bringing down the whole
system
- Compatibility--able
to run applications designed for DOS, Win16, Win32, OS/2, and POSIX-compliant
systems (a UNIX standard). Also able to provide full connectivity on a network
with Apple, Novell, Banyan, UNIX, and IBM
machines.
- Distributed
processing--in a client-server relationship, tasks are doled out according to
the capabilities of each--a distributed application will perform the heavier
processing tasks on the server, and the graphic-intensive user interface on the
client.
- Security--network
resources are protected from intrusion, damage, and theft through an
object-oriented file system and access control
lists.
The original NT 3.1 fell short of some of
these. A later and common upgrade was NT 3.5 (quickly modified to NT 3.51--NT
3.5 is rare), and the present widely used version, Windows NT 4.0 in 1996. "NT4"
has since had seven Service Packs published which fix "bugs", add newly
developed features, upgrade internal utilities (such as IE and IIS) or (in the
case of SP5) fix previous SPs... ;)
Versions
There are two versions of NT4 (though you
really just need to know the first one):
Both are 32-bit multitasking operating
systems designed to run in a networking environment, rather than a standalone
role. WINNT 4.0 t is meant to be used in a business setting rather than for home
use.
Though NT Server offers a few more
capabilities, the Setup program for both is WINNT.EXE.
Features
Specific cool things about NT
include:
- Stability - WinNT is more
stable and secure than the W9x OSes.
- New Registry - so
fundamentally different from the W9x systems that there is no direct upgrade
possible. WinNT does away (almost) entirely with .INI files--all configuration
data is kept in the
Registry.
- Multiple
platforms and support for other
OSes
- Multitasking and
multithreading
- Security
- Built-in
Networking
- Big hard
storage stuff is okay (large capacity for memory and
disks)
- Multiple
Protocol Support (TCP/IP, NetBEUI, NWLink, DLC, AppleTalk,
etc)
Most implementations of NT use the new file
system called NTFS,
which is incompatible with FAT16 or
FAT32. Rather than
having a
File Allocation Table,
it has a
Master File Table
and many other capabilities, like software-based
RAID support (like
stripe sets and volume sets), and file-level security.
Note: The one area where NT lags
behind Windows 9x and 2000 is in PnP support.
NT Server
NT Server is:
- Maximized for delivering
files to clients, printing, performing centralized administrative tasks in the
domain
- Supports a
theoretically unlimited number of simultaneous connections.
- The base server
system upon which specialized software can be run, such as SQL Server (advanced
database), Exchange Server (Email management), SMS Server (remote management),
SNA Server (interface with mainframes), and IIS (Inter- or intranet services).
On install, NT Server can be designated as
a Domain Controller
(participating in Domain security and access control) or as a Member Server (for
storing and distributing data upon request).
NT Workstation
NT Workstation is:
- Maximized for running
process-intense, number crunching applications locally.
- Limited to ten
simultaneous connections, which enables it to operate either as a client in a
Domain or as a resource in a Peer-to-Peer setting.
Most of the security and utility functions
of NT Server are also available on NT Workstation in a scaled-down or localized
form. Users may be managed and performance can be tracked, but only for the
machine itself.
http://support.microsoft.com/directory/content.asp?ID=FH;EN-US;ntw40&FR=0&SD=GN&LN=EN-US&CT=SD&SE=NONA
Installing Windows NT
Installation procedures for
Intel/CISC machines fall
into two basic types:
- A single, local
install from CD-ROM, or
- A single or multiple
install from a remote machine through a shared network
directory.
Hardware Requirements and Recommendations
The minimum and recommended requirements to
install NT4 Workstation are as follows (Note: NEVER go with the minimum.
Consider the "recommended" as real minimum!):
|
Min Required
|
Recommended
|
Processor
|
486
|
Pentium
|
Memory
|
12 MB
|
16MB
|
Display
|
VGA
|
SVGA
|
Disk Space
|
110 MB free space
|
250-300 free
|
Others
|
CDROM, floppy, or NIC
|
NIC
|
Installation Process
The first step in installing Windows NT4 is
to check the Hardware Compatibility List
(HCL) to make sure the
hardware platform is compliant with Microsoft requirements. All peripheral
devices must be on the HCL as well. Primarily this means that proven, tested
device drivers (which translate commands from the OS to the device) are
available and approved.
- To install NT Workstation to a single PC, locate the
three 1.44 MB floppy disks and the CD that contains the system files. Boot the
machine from the floppy marked "Setup Boot Disk". You will be prompted to insert
disk 2, and then disk 3. This loads enough of the OS so that the system files
from the CD can be obtained and copied.
- Insert
the CD, and follow the prompts that
follow.
(Note: It's a good idea to have a
blank 1.44 MB floppy handy, as during Setup you will be given the option to make
an
Emergency Recovery Disk.
Use this option.)- The faster option for a
single, and the only way for a multiple installation, is to write the system
files over the network. This can be directly from a CD-ROM drive on a server,
with a share created for the i386 directory, but even faster is by loading the
contents of the i386 directory onto the server's HDD and sharing that.
- At the client machine(s), run either WINNT.EXE
(for a new installation) or WINNT32.EXE (for an upgrade from NT 3.51 or for a
reinstall of NT4--this is a 32-bit app and runs faster on a machine previously
set up as 32-bit). WINNT32 Switches:
- /B - Put boot
files on hard drive instead of using boot floppies (takes an extra 4-5MB of hard
disk
space).
- /S
- Specify source file location(s) - multiple locations will speed up
installation.
- /U
- Specify answer file location for use with unattended installation - MUST be
used with /s to specify source file
location(s).
- /T
- Specifies location of temp directory created for install
(/t:<path>).
- /OX
- Create the setup disks from CD-ROM or shared network folder. Used to replace
damaged boot
disks.
- /F
- Don't verify files. Can speed up
installation.
- /C
- Don't check for free space when creating boot
disks.
- /I
- Specify setup information (.inf) file. This file tells setup how to run. The
default name is DOSNET.INF.
Note: A
RISC-based box must be
installed from a CD-ROM. Before beginning, consult the manual for the procedure
on how to start programs from a CD drive--differences exist among the various
types. For a fresh installation, run SETUPLDR.EXE; an upgrade of a previous
installation again takes WINNT32.EXE.
- Regardless of the type of installation, you will be
prompted for information during the process. The alternative, and the best for
multiple install, is to provide an Answer file and a Uniqueness Database File.
These provide the Setup application with configurations and settings
automatically. Information you will need in these files or in person
include:
- The
Product ID number; can be on the CD case, the manual, or a separate
card
- A
NetBIOS name of 15 characters or less; must be unique to each
machine
- A
Domain and/or Workgroup name, depending on which the PC will connect
to
- Administrator
password--14 characters or less; should be the same on all machines in the
network to avoid
migraines
- Which
protocols to install. TCP/IP is the default, but NetBEUI
or NWlink (for connectivity with Novell NetWare servers) may be required as
well.
- NIC
settings--IRQ, I/O base port address, DMA, shared memory, and type of cable
interface (the Express option will install the first NIC it finds, load default
settings, and ask for confirmation. Custom install provides the option to do
this or select the card and the settings
manually).
- Local
printer name and port--optional.
Windows NT Boot Files
- NTLDR (loader
file)
- NTDETECT.COM
(recognizes
hardware)
- BOOT.INI
(OS
menu)
- BOOTSECT.DOS
(alt boot
sector)
- NTOSKRNL.EXE
(kernel)
- HAL.DLL
- SYSTEM32\CONFIG
(hive,
registry)
- SYSTEM\32\DRIVERS\*.SYS
(boot sequence,
drivers)
- NTBOOTDD.SYS
(SCSI disk driver)
Upgrading to Windows NT 4.0
You cannot directly upgrade from Windows 9x
– the OSes are too different. It is possible to upgrade an existing NT 3.1
or NT 3.51 installation to NT 4.0, and retain all preferences, security
information, and application data. (Always back up all data before doing so!) It
is NOT possible to upgrade Windows 95 or 98 directly to NT. The Registries are
too dissimilar in structure.
Control Panel
Control Panel is the main configuration
tool for managing the user environment and the system environment (system
settings). One machine may store separate local user profiles so that each user
who logs on is given his own settings for the Desktop, applications, printers,
Taskbar, Favourites, and History. If the user has no local profile, a call to
the server will deliver his roaming profile if the user has one stored;
otherwise a Default user profile is loaded.
Windows 9x:
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
Icons in the Control Panel represent
utilities including:
- Add/Remove Programs
- a wizard walk-through for installing or modifying
applications
- Add/Remove
Hardware - a wizard walk-through for installing or modifying hardware and
plug n play
devices
- Network
settings--local IP address, computer name, Domain/Workgroup name, names and
IP addresses of DNS, WINS, DHCP servers, and hardware settings for
NIC
- Peripheral
devices - configure the Keyboard, Mouse, Modems, Game
Controllers
- Internet
Options – configure home page, history, internet
security
- Multimedia
- manage settings for audio,
video
- ODBC
– manage database
connectivity
- Display
settings - controls resolution, refresh rate, colours used, wallpaper,
screensavers
- Printers
and Ports--comm settings for serial ports; install, remove and set printer
options (notice this is a
shortcut)
- Power
Management – standby and power scheme
settings
- Fonts--add
and remove font selections, toggle
TrueType
- Date and
time -
duh
- SCSI -
handles Small Computer System Interface settings for SCSI controllers, tape
drives (if you have a SCSI host
adapter)
- Services
- starts, stops and pauses various
services
- System
- system startup settings, system environment variables, virtual memory
settings, recovery options, and multitasking
settings
In NT:
- User Manager –
(NT) creates, edits, and views user profile information. Sets user permissions,
local group permissions, and local system policies. Two permanent user accounts
are set by default--Administrator and Guest. These can be changed but never
deleted.
- Disk
Administrator – (NT) formats the HDD(s), sets partitions, chooses file
systems.
- UPS -
configures uninterrupted power supply.
In 2000:
- Folder Options
– settings for all
folders
- Users and
Passwords – where you set “Users must enter a username and
password to use this computer” and “Require users to press
Crtl-Alt-Del before logging
on”
- Administrative
Tools Folder shortcut (also Start -> Programs -> Admin
Tools)
Windows 2000 Control Panel:
Windows 2000 Admin Tools:
Read more about using the
Windows 2000 Control Panel
Read more about
Desktop User Profiles
User and Group Accounts in NT
User Accounts are managed in
User Manager for Domains
(NT Server) or User Manager (NT Workstation). Only local groups and users may be
viewed, created and edited in User Manager. A local group and the permissions
set for it will only apply to the local machine and its resources, whether
accessed at the machine or over the network. The permissions of a global group
can apply to any number of machines in the Domain.
The clearest method of access control is to
put users into global groups at the server--add global groups to local groups as
needed--and manage the permissions of the local group. Giving permissions
directly to users can lead to conflicts and should be
avoided. There are two user accounts created by
default
Both these accounts may be modified but
never deleted. Both these accounts represent a possible security hole if not
modified. Both should at least be renamed, and the Guest account should remain
disabled if not needed. NOTE: Every
account created is associated with a SID (Security Identifier) which is
(supposedly) "unique in all space and all time". When the account is modified,
even renamed and reconfigured, the SID remains identical. If the account is
deleted and then reconstructed exactly--username, password, permissions,
everything--the SID is not. As NT sees the new account, it is completely
different. (Headaches have sprung from this one...)
- A user name must be unique,
and should be descriptive. A good idea is to set a naming convention for
usernames, such as first initial, last name, and location/job code. (e.g.
ckent8cb might mean Clark Kent, 8th floor, City
beat)
- Usernames must
be 20 characters or less, without these:
\"/][|;:><,.?*+=
- Full
Name is optional, but handy in large
enterprises
- Description
is optional; again handy for managing large numbers of
users
- Password is
case-sensitive (brainbug is different from BrainBug) and can be up to 14
characters in length. A good password is at least 8 characters and includes
lower case, capitals, numerals, and symbols. (e.g. WTH_y0u??, 12gaSH07gun!,
CAP741n-who?!,
H07Yc0wb4+m4N!....)
- Passwords
should be easy to remember, but hard to crack. It can be
done.
Account options can adjust security levels
as needed.- User Must
Change Password--if the Admin has assigned or reassigned the user's password,
this enables the user to access his account but must change the password at the
next logon.
- User
Cannot Change Password--good for an account that numbers of people must access;
also for assigning lazy users tough passwords (instead of their birth date or
licence
plate).
- Password
Never Expires--good for accounts used by NT services such as Backup, or the
Anonymous account used by IIS for FTP
access.
- Account
Disabled--useful for guarding the account of a user on vacation, or when an
account is set up perfectly and the user must be replaced. Deleting and
recreating accounts is not as good when users are replaced; a better move is to
disable and then rename the account when needed.
It is useful to make a template of accounts
that will be allowed similar access permissions. Set up an account with the
desired configurations and Copy it when needed. All settings except username,
full name, "account disabled", and password transfer over.
- Profile button is
used to specify a Home Directory to contain the user's personal settings,
applications, and working folders/data files. It can also set up a logon script
to connect the user automatically to the parts of the network the user normally
accesses.
- Dial-in
is for configuring the user's Remote Access settings. By default, there are five
group accounts installed in User Manager.
Seldom is it necessary to create
groups--the defaults cover a good range of requirements.
- Administrators - not
the Administrator account, but a local group that users may be added to which
gives full power to make changes in the Domain or Workgroup as well as
locally.
- Power
Users - membership in this group allows several administrative powers beyond
normal user but short of Administrator. Most useful are the right to access the
PC from the network, create and manage user accounts, and manage shares on
printers, files and folders. (Unique to NT Workstation--not available on NT
Server.)
- Backup
Operators - gives the rights necessary to access directories and files to
back them up into
storage.
- Users
- allows rights necessary to operate the machine, such as log on locally,
shut down the PC, and create/manage local group and user
accounts.
- Guest
- again, not the Guest account, but a local group which users may be added
to for access to the machine or domain. This group has no default rights; they
must be added as required.
On an NT Server, several other local groups
are added as default, such as Server Operator, Account Operator, Print Operator
(no Power User), and three global groups--Domain Administrators, Domain Users,
and Domain Guests.
All these groups have
built-in, predefined, unchangeable abilities, and default, modifiable user
rights. These are controlled from the User Rights Policy box accessed from the
Policy drop-down.
Account Policies regarding
password age and length, lockout settings, and enforcing logon hours are
accessed from Account in the Policy
drop-down.
Adding user accounts to group
accounts (or removing them) is managed by selecting the group account and
clicking the User, Properties drop-down.
Troubleshooting Windows
NT4
Several built-in utilities exist in NT4 for
detecting and diagnosing problems before and after they occur. These are also
useful for optimizing performance. Just because these are so fun to play with is
no reason to forget the basics--always check the connections and cables first,
in case of a catastrophic failure. In case of a more minor problem, check Event
Viewer.
Event Viewer- has three separate
logs to inspect:
- Application - logs all
information pertinent to the running of applications, including
failures.
- Security -
records policy changes, logon and access attempts; may be used to audit file and
directory access if enabled in the Properties for these. Auditing causes a small
overall performance drop, so use only when
necessary.
- System -
shows all significant system activity. After checking connections, the System
log should be your first step in diagnosis
Log items are marked with a blue I for
routine informational items, a ! in yellow for events worth watching, and
a red stop sign for items which may be critical to operation, such as the
failure of a service to start.
Filtering is
available to narrow the events listed, and is in the View
drop-down. Events may be filtered by date/time,
event ID, event type, user, and the event source. As hundreds of system events
are logged per hour, narrowing the items viewed is a good
idea.
All logs may be recorded as a file,
Three options:
- In binary form that only
Event Viewer can
read
- Plain readable
text, or
- Comma-delimited text
that can port to an Excel
spreadsheet.
Windows NT
Diagnostics - in Administrative Tools, or WINMSD.EXE from the command
line, provides a snapshot of all important system configurations. No editing is
possible, but everything about the system is viewable from
here.
Performance Monitor - provides a
finely controllable EEG-like view (by default) of all aspects of system
operation. Other views available are histogram (bar graph), report (numeric
average), and alert, which can broadcast an admin alert over the network or be
set to run a program when specified thresholds are crossed (such as less than
10% HDD capacity remaining).
Perfmon allows selection of:
- Objects--HDD, memory,
processor; also processes, threads, pagefile, cache, system, browser, and more.
When a utility is added (such as SNMP) it will add objects to the Perfmon
list.
- Counters--specific
aspects of the object chosen, such as Memory: page hits, page faults, page-ins,
page-outs, allocated memory, unused memory,
etc.
- Instances--specific
occurrences of counters--page faults per sec, total page faults, "hard" and
"soft" page
faults...
Perfmon may be
logged over time and used to establish a baseline of normal performance to
compare against any abnormal
activity.
Task Manager - provides a
quick and handy method of checking the system status and managing applications.
Right-click on the taskbar or press Ctrl-Alt-Esc to invoke it. TaskMan has three
tabbed pages to view:
- Application - shows all
running programs, and may be used to shut down any that are unresponsive by
usual
means.
- Processes--shows
all running processes and resources used by each. The priority of these may be
changed
here.
- Performance--a
rough look at CPU and memory usage in real-time. Good for a quick overview and
to identify if Perfmon is needed.
Check out:
http://www.i386.com/default.asp?page=pages&category=ADMIN&keyword=booting
http://www-csag.ucsd.edu/projects/comm/ntrsc.html
No exp with NT? Check out these
demos
http://www.exitnow.com/skillbuilder/viewlets/windowsnt4.htm
NT Boot Problems
If experiencing boot problems, do not
log on. Same thing applies to Windows 2000. Upon logon, the boot process is
completed, and parts of the registry are backed up as being good. It's even
called "LastKnownGood" (not a reference to a bachelor party BTW). So instead of
logging on and saving a corrupt controlset key to the Registry, reboot and
hammer the spacebar, which will restore the LastKnownGood settings to the
current Registry. Choose a hardware configuration and press L. This may also
work if editing the Registry directly causes those instant problems previously
warned about, or if a corrupt driver is loaded and crashes the
system.
If the bootup fails completely, pull
out the three boot disks and the Emergency Repair Disk created on installation
(and hopefully kept current). The ERD is not a boot disk. It contains compressed
Registry files and a program which extracts and overwrites them into the damaged
Registry.
Read More on Using RDISK /S to
create ERDs in NT 4.):
http://www.cert.org/security-improvement/implementations/i028.01.htmlNote:
The ERD is made or updated by running RDISK.EXE (the /S switch is
recommended--it updates security and account information). Click either Create
or Update Repair Disk ("Create" requires a preformatted floppy). It is possible
to run over the capacity of a single 1.44MB disk; RDISK prompts for another if
so.
The boot disks may be produced after
installation by running WINNT32.EXE with the /OX switch. This does not reinstall
the OS, it just makes the floppies.
The
BOOT.INI file--about the only .INI file NT uses--will need editing if the
system partition (the one with the boot files--not the boot partition, with the
system files. True.) changes. The RASH (Read, Archive, System, Hidden)
attributes will have to be removed to edit it, and restored after. Remember that
the controller and disk values begin at 0, and the partition numbering begins at
1. Error messages involving NTLDR or NTOSKRNL are your clue that BOOT.INI needs
attention.
Read more on Troubleshooting Startup and
disk problems:
http://www.microsoft.com/TechNet/winnt/reskit/troubles.asp
Troubleshooting Printers
Printers (or Print Devices in NT lingo) are
another story in themselves. The first things to check are always the physical
side:
- Is the printer
on?
- Is it out of
paper?
- Is there a
paper jam inside?
- Is
the cable connection
secure?
When NT workstation
sends a print request to an NT server, the server automatically checks the
client for the correct printer driver. If not present, or if out of date, the
server downloads the printing software to the client. The driver is rarely the
problem between NT systems.
As with
everything else NT, different groups and users can have different levels of
rights assigned. Different printer shares may vary as to rights granted. Each
user or group can have different priorities, or scheduled hours of use. Any or
all of these may cause a problem.
If the
printing process is running slowly, check to see that the drive the spool
directory is on has enough space. By default this is in the same partition as
the system files; this can only be changed in the Registry by directly editing.
Keep the printer spool drive defragmented.
Note: As NT has no native defrag
utility, this is done by hand or with a third-party
application.
In the case of complete printing
failure, try:
- Stopping and restarting the
spooling service may clear the jam.
- Deleting and
reinstalling the printer is a last resort--all the shares, rights, and other
settings will have to be redone.
Logging and auditing may be enabled for
printers. These entries are sent to Event Viewer, and can be filtered for easier
inspection.
Note: Much of the Troubleshooting in
NT is the same for Windows 2000.
Windows 2000
Windows 2000 (Win2K for short) is another
leap from the previous versions of Windows in that it basically combines the
best parts of all its predecessors.
Versions
There are four versions of Windows 2000
(though you really need only deal with what is common to all of them, and the
first one in particular):
- Windows 2000 Professional
– desktop/client OS ***
- Windows 2000 Server
– server
platform
- Windows 2000
Advanced Server – enterprise
edition
- Windows 2000
Datacenter Server – most powerful server
Read more about Server vs.
Professional:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/chats/trans/sw20620.asp
Features
- Windows 2000 provides
built-in networking
support
- Full Internet
integration
- Customizable
Admin Tools and Start Menu (a learning
menu)
- Better Hardware
support – good PnP support, compatibility between 98 and 2000
drivers
- USB
support
- File System
support for FAT32, FAT16, NTFS4, and NTFS5
(default)
- Backup
Options – including a utility for scheduled backups (Task
Scheduler)
- Kerberos
authentication protocol and Smart Cards for security (file level encryption and
user identification for Internet
access)
- VPN
and remote/mobile user
access
- IPP
(Internet Printing Protocol)
Installing Windows 2000
There are three ways to install Windows
2000:
- From the Win2K setup floppies, then loading files from
the CDROM
- Booting from the
CD
- Connecting to the network server and
installing from shared location
Windows 2000 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations
|
Min Required
|
Recommended
|
Processor
|
Pentium 133
(Ha! Good one, Bill)
|
Pentium 350 MHz
|
Memory
|
64 MB
|
128 MB
|
Display
|
VGA
|
SVGA
|
Disk Space
|
650 free MB, 2 GB available
|
2 GB free, 6.4 GB available
|
Others
|
Floppy drive, keyboard, mouse,
12x CDROM (not req’d if installing over a
network)
|
24x CDROM, floppy, PCI NIC
|
All devices should be on the Win2K Hardware
Compatibility List (HCL) – HCL.TXT file is in the SUPPORT folder on the
Windows 2000 CD.
Read more on HCL:
http://www.microsoft.com/hcl/default.asp
Windows 2000 Partitions
Windows 2000 can be installed on an
existing Partition or a new one. The Setup program allows you to choose
(select, create, delete) partitions for the OS only. Partitions must be at
least 650 MB, but 1 GB is recommended.
Leaving FDISK behind now, you can create
partitions using the Disk Management Utility after Install.
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Domain or Workgroup Selection
Windows 2000 ships with built-in
networking. Win2K allows workstations to operate as members of workgroups and
domains.
- A Workgroup is a
group of computers operating as a P2P network sharing resources and connections
and user-level security at the
workstation.
- A
Domain is a collection of computers sharing the same security database
(Active Directory service) with user accounts and domain security information.
Before the Installation, you will
need:
- Domain name in your DNS
(Domain Name System) on your
server
- Computer
account within the
domain
- Domain
Controller and DNS Server (Win2K Server must have a Domain Controller, which
holds the user account and validates logins on the DNS
Server.)
Installation Process
Depending on the type of installation
(network, local) you may also need to
Create a Distribution Server and configure
the client workstation for Network Installations first.
- Create boot floppy disks (you’ll
need 4) from the Win2K CD. Open Windows Explorer -> My Computer and
go to the CD subdirectory \BOOTDISK. Double click MAKEBOOT.EXE and
select the floppy drive (A:). You will be prompted for the next disk. When done,
click Close.
If you are creating a distribution
server to install the OS across a network, you will need to create a folder
(W2000P) for you source files, and copy all the files from the
I386 folder on the Windows 2000 CD into it. Then, share the folder to be
able to access it from the client machine. This is your distribution
share.
At the client machine, make sure you
have the minimum hardware requirements (650MB!!)
If this is an upgrade, use the existing
Network client OS to connect to your shared network folder W2000P. If this is a
client machine without a
NOS,
us a boot disk which includes MSClient (for network connections)
TYPE in NET USE W:
\\Servername\W2000P to connect to the distribution share.
Run the Setup program: WINNT32.EXE on
9x/NT machines; WINNT.EXE on Win3.x machines.
The WINNT/WINNT32 program will create a
Temporary folder and copy the installation files into it.
Restart you computer to begin the
installation process.
After restarting the
machine:
- Start the setup program
- Text Mode setup
- Create
partition for Win2K
- Select
the File System
- Format
the partition, if needed
- Copy
installation files to the hard drive
- Restart the computer
- Setup Wizard (graphic mode)
- Choose
Regional Settings
- Enter
name and organization
- Enter
the Product Key (write it on the CD!)
- Enter a
15 character computer name, unique to the network (ask your Net Admin for
this)
- Choose a
password for the local Administrator account
- Fill in
the Date and Time
- Network Configuration
- Auto-detects
NICs and installs Windows Networking (Client for Microsoft Networks, File and
Print Sharing, TCP/IP)
- Choose
to join a workgroup or a domain
- Final Bits to Tidy up
- Create
Start menu shortcuts
- Setup
choices applied
- Configuration
saved to hard drive
- Temp
files deleted
Last Restart
Upgrading to Windows 2000
On Windows 9x or NT machines, use
WINNT32.EXE to start Setup. On Windows 3.x, you use WINNT.EXE. This will create
a temporary folder and copy installation files into it. The computer will need
to restart before the rest of the Installation process.
http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/professional/howtobuy/upgrading/path/win9x.asp
Boot Sequence of Windows 2000
- POST
- PnP
Devices
- Locates
MBR
- NTLDR (Real mode to 32 bit memory model and
then loads the drivers to read the file
system))
- BOOT.INI (location of other OS
files)
- BOOTSECT.DOS (for multi-boot systems when
another OS is detected)
- NTDETECT.COM (hardware
detection)
- WINNT\SYSTEM32\NTOSKRNL.EXE
(initialized ***Win2k kernel file***)
- HAL.DLL
(Hardware Abstraction Layer for hardware
independence)
- WINNT\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM
key (the key from the Registry for the device drivers to be
initialized)
- WINNT\SYSTEM32\drivers\*.SYS
(low-level device drivers
loaded)
Graphic
Display...
- HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\HARDWARE key (the key from the
Registry for detecting hardware and
settings)
- Clone copy of control set is created
(prior setup)
- Device Drivers
loaded
- Windows 2000 services
started
- Logon prompt (after login, the clone
control set is copied to the LastKnownGood control set in case of a system boot
failure)
Note: Just like NT, the
LastKnownGood Control set remembers the last time Win2K booted successfully. If
Win2K fails on startup, DO NOT logon before shutting down the system, as it will
overwrite the last good config. Pressing F8 on Startup will get you to the Last
Known Good selection on the Advanced Option menu.
After a failed boot in NT or 2000, do
not logon.
Advanced Options Menu
In Windows 9x, this menu was called the
Startup menu, but in Win2k, it’s called the Advanced Options menu. Press
F8 to access it as the system is booting:
- Safe
Mode
- Safe Mode with
Networking
- Safe Mode
with Command
Prompt
- Enable Boot
Logging
(WINNT\NTBTLOG.TXT)
- Enable
VGA mode
- Last Known
good
Configuration
- Directory
Services Restore Mode (Domain Controllers
only)
- Boot
Normally
Windows 2000 Required Boot Files
- NTLDR (loader
file)
- NTDETECT.COM
(recognizes
hardware)
- BOOT.INI
(OS
menu)
- BOOTSECT.DOS
(alt boot
sector)
- NTOSKRNL.EXE
(kernel)
- HAL.DLL
- SYSTEM32\CONFIG
(registry)
- SYSTEM\32\DRIVERS\*.SYS
(drivers)
Administering Windows 2000
Win2K has a centralized location for
Management Utilities called the Microsoft Management Console (MMC). It is
the location for applications called Snap-ins. Consoles can be saved in either
author or user mode, with full access, limited access (multiple window), or
limited access (single window).
The MMC (Microsoft Management Console) is
the central location for Windows 2000 management utilities (called Snap-ins).
Start -> Run -> MMC
More on MMC Snap-ins:
http://support.microsoft.com/support/kb/articles/Q230/2/63.ASP
http://support.microsoft.com/support/kb/articles/Q271/1/35.ASP
Disk Management and Resources
Volume Sets
A volume is a unit of storage, logical or
physical (whole or part of a drive) used by Windows 2000 dynamic storage for
fault tolerance and backup:
- Simple Volume – No
fault tolerance. disk space from one disk
only.
- Spanned Volume
– No fault tolerance. Disk space from more than one disk, information is
written on one disk until full, then the next, then the
next
- Striped volume
(aka RAID 0) – to
improve disk access. Data is written simultaneously to all disks (stripe set).
Stripe Sets may be created by selecting 2 to 32 areas of free space on 2 to 32
physical HDDs. This enables writing and reading across two or more HDDs
simultaneously and can speed up read/write access. There is no fault tolerance
on a simple stripe
set.
- Mirror Sets
(RAID 1) and Stripe Sets with Parity (Duplexed) (RAID 5) are available only on
NT/2000 Server. These use multiple HDDs for faster access and/or recoverability
of data in case one drive
fails.
User and Group Management
Just like Windows NT, Win2K has two types
of accounts:
- Local (this computer
login)
- Domain
(accounts reside on the domain controllers)
Like Windows NT, There are two built-in
User Accounts that can be changed, but not deleted:
- Administrator (god
rights)
- Guest
(default disabled)
User Accounts
You create User Accounts using the Local
Users and Groups snap-in:
Go to Admin Tools -> Computer
Management -> Users folder ->
Right click and select New
User:
Fill in the fields:
- Username
(required)
- Full name
(helpful in larger
environments)
- Description
- Password
(recommended)
- User
must change password at next
login
- User cannot
change
password
- Password
never expires
- Account
is disabled
Groups
A group is simply a collection of user
accounts the make it easier to assign permissions and rights to a number of
users.
Win2K Professional (like NT Workstation)
can only create Local groups. You need a unique name (less than 256 character
with no back slashes: \), and can add and remove members as needed.
Note: Shift + Click to add multiple user accounts at once, or use Ctrl + Click
to add a consecutive list of users.
Built-in Groups:
- Administrators (god
power)
- Power Users
(some admin privileges)
- Backup Operators
(can backup and restore
folders/files)
- Replicator
(with directory replication is
used)
- Users (all new
users are automatically added to this
group)
- Guests
(limited rights)
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
Win2K also have Built-in System
Groups:
- Everyone
(all users who access the system)
- Authenticated
Users (all users with a valid account)
- Creator
Owner (Group owners)
- Interactive
(user currently working locally)
- Network
(groups of user accounts/users currently connected to the network)
Managing Security
Auditing
Auditing enables the Administrator to track
user accounts and system events, using the security log in Event Viewer. This
log includes the action taken, the user who did it, whether successful or
unsuccessful. Also includes:
- Account
management
- Logon
events
- Object
access
- Policy
changes
- Privilege
use
- System
Events
Go to Start -> Programs - > Admin
Tools -> Local Security to set up Auditing:
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
And Password Policy to:
- Enforce password history
(can keep up to 24 passwords, to prevent
reusing)
- Max password
age (42 days,
below)
- Min password
age (when a password can be changed
again)
- Min password
length (...to a max of 14
characters)
- Meet
complexity
requirements
- Account
Lockout duration (time of lockout after exceeding logon attempt
threshold)
- Account
Lockout threshold (number of login attempts
allowed)
- Reset
account lockout (after a number of login
attempts)
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
Logon Security Options include:
- Allow system to be shut
down without having to
logon
- Disable CTRL +
ALT +DEL requirement for
logon
- Do not display
last user name on logon
screen
- Automatically
logoff user when login time
expires
- Rename Admin
account
- Rename guest
account
- NOTE:
There are MANY options here...
Troubleshooting Windows 2000
For system recovery, try the Recovery
Console, a command line interface, or Emergency Repair, which copies
system files and replaces ones damaged/missing, on the Windows 2000 CD. Select
the Repair option for either Recovery Console or Emergency Repair.
Top 15 Admin Tasks for Win2K:
http://www.microsoft.com/TechNet/win2000/win2kts/prodfact/w2ktop15.asp
MS How it Works:
http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/techinfo/howitworks/default.asp
MS Step-by-step:
http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/techinfo/planning/walkthroughs/default.asp
Troubleshooting What to know:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win2000/whattodo.asp
Windows Professional HELP:
http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/en/professional/help/
Don’t have access to Windows 2000?
Check out MS’s online demos:
http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/demos/default.asp
Windows 2000 Utilities
There are at least 3 ways to open every
utility: from the Start Menu, from the Control Panel, from MMC.
Start -> Control Panel
See the two little down arrows? That is the
(annoying) learning menu in Windows 2000. The menu only shows you what you have
accessed recently. If you don’t use it, Windows doesn’t show it. If
you mouse over the two little down arrows, the menu opens up.
You can turn off the learning
menu:
Start -> Settings -> Control
Panel
Start -> Run
Other Win2K Utilities
- Convert.exe – to
convert from FAT/FAT32 to
NTFS
- File Compression
and Encryption – access from Folder/File Properties (right click)
-> General tab -> Advanced button
- Disk Quotas are
accessed from right clicking on a drive and selecting Properties -> Quota
tab. Disk quotas are used on a per-user, per-volume basis and define the
amount of space used for each users files and
folders.
- Encrypting
File System (EFS) – allows NTFS volumes to be
secured.
- Dr.
Watson - detects information about system and program failures, then records
the info into a log file. In the event of a program error, Dr. Watson starts
automatically.
Note: Encrypted files can’t be
compressed, and compressed files can’t be encrypted.
Read more on EFS:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win2000/win2ksrv/technote/nt5efs.asp
NT/2000 Registry
The Registry in Windows NT is the central
source of configuration information for the system. Those .INI files (which in
other OSes performed this function also) that remain are strictly for backward
compatibility with 16-bit applications.
It is possible to edit the Registry
directly with two separate utilities: REGEDIT.EXE and REGEDT32.EXE. The major
difference is; REGEDIT is easier to find keys with, and REGEDT32 is easier to
edit keys with. This is only recommended for experts—one, repeat ONE false
entry can crash the system instantly, and force a fresh reinstall of the OS. An
Administrator can view and edit the Registry of a remote
machine. The GUI tools are far safer and easier
to use, and can handle 95% of configuration tasks.
Click Start -> Run and type
either REGEDIT or REGEDIT32
Windows 98 REGEDIT:
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Windows 2000 REGEDIT32
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Major Differences Between Windows Versions
Windows 95, 98, NT, and 2000 all share
basically the same desktop, but there are some significant differences.
To compare, see also:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win2000/win2kpro/default.asp
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win2000/win2ksrv/default.asp
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/winnt/default.asp
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win98/default.asp
See also:
All MS OSes in 1500 Words or Less
Windows 9x
The main differences between Windows 95 and
98 are desktop changes. Specifically, Windows 98 has:
- Fully integrated
IE
- Full 32-bit
operation (including 32-bit
WDM
device drivers)
- Standardised 32-bit
drivers
- FAT32 file
system
- Long
filenames
- Pre-emptive
multitasking (applications given a timeslice to complete a task)
- Support for more
hardware (including multiple displays) and remote
access
- Plug N Play
support (Windows 95 was leaps ahead of Windows
3.x)
- More System
Management Utilities, like MSI (Microsoft System Information), Dr. Watson and
Maintenance Wizard
Also read:
Pre-emptive Multitasking Explained
Windows NT
Windows NT is significantly different from
previous Windows OSes. NT is/has:
- Real 32-bit
environment
- More
expensive
- More robust
(reliable)
- Much
better security (mandatory login, auditing, access,
control)
- User, group,
and permission
management
- Requires a
better system (more hardware) to run (RISC-based machines, multiple
processors)
- Support
for Multiple platforms and other OSes (POSIX and
OS/2)
- Better
multitasking and
multithreading
- More
networking capabilities built-in
- Multiple protocol
support
- NTFS
(supports FAT or NTFS file
systems)
- More of a
business OS, than home
use
- ***POOR PnP
support***
- ***No
Device Manager***
Server vs. Workstation
- Server allows unlimited
network connections, where as Workstation allows only
10
- Server allows up
to 256 Remote sessions; Workstation only
1.
- Server login to
local machine and domain; Workstation login to local
machine
- Server has
fault tolerance (RAID
0,1,5)
- Server can
handle SMP and 4
processors; Workstation
SMP and 2
processors
- Server has
a domain-based management architecture
Same differences are seen comparing Windows
2000 Professional and Server.
Windows 2000
Windows 2000 combines the best of all
versions of Windows -- supposedly ;)
- File Level Encryption
(EFS)
- Most
expensive
- You can
choose your file system with 2000, either FAT32 or
NTFS
- Full Internet
integration (including IPP – Internet Printing Protocol – and ICM
– Image Colour
Management)
- Even
better hardware support (larger disks, great PnP support, multiple processors
like NT)
- Most
hardware intensive OS
yet
- Scheduled Backup
options, including CD-R and ZIP devices, and
Tasks
- Increased
networking requirements
- Improved Security
(Kerberos Authentication Protocol, aka encryption) – file level
encryption
- Customisable
admin tools (MMC, Snap-ins), start menu (a “learning
menu”)
- Cannot
delete system-required files (as 2000 keeps a second copy that will
automatically replace any deleted system
file)
- Active
Directory
support
- Auditing
- Better
user, group, and permission management
- Mobile users
support
Windows 3.x, XP, Me and Linux
None of these OS are covered on the A+ exam
– so I’m not covering them here.
;)
Windows File Systems
There are three Windows file
systems:
- CDFS--Compact
Disc File System; a read-only file system, not
configurable
- FAT--File
Allocation Table; primarily for compatibility with other OSes
(dual-booting)
- NTFS--New
Technology File System; fast, reliable, secure, and
robust
- (Also HPFS
– High Performance File System – to convert from
OS/2)
File Allocation Table (FAT)
Windows 9x uses FAT32, with FAT16 drivers
for backward capabilities.
Each partition on a hard drive needs to be
formatted to hold files (high level formatting) and folders that the OS can
access. The FORMAT command creates and configures File Allocation Tables (FAT)
and creates the root directory to build the OS upon.
Hard drives store data in areas called
sectors, up to 512 Bytes. If you have a file smaller than 512B, the rest of the
sector goes to waste. If you have a file over 512B, the OS fills unused,
non-sequential sectors until the file is stored completely (this is why you will
eventually need to “defrag” every hard drive, too). Once files are
written to the disk, the OS needs to remember which sectors have parts of which
file: in other words, a File Allocation Table.
FAT16 means the file system uses 16 bits to
write addresses (4 hexadecimal numbers: 0000-FFFF). By doing the math, you will
see why we outgrew this years ago. Our hard drives got too big: 16 bits equals
65,536 (64K of) sectors.
65,536 (64K) x 512K = 33,554,432 Bytes (or
32,768 KB or 32 MBs)
To get partitions larger than 32MB with
FAT16, we used clusters or file allocation units: contiguous
sectors acting like one sector in the FAT table. With between 4 to 64
sectors/cluster, FAT16 was able to see partitions up 2 GBs (32K
clusters).
With Windows 95,
FAT32 was introduced.
FAT32 means the FAT table has 32-bit addresses (8 hexadecimal numbers). This
also enabled long file names (beyond the 8.3 dos standard). Depending on the
cluster size (4-32 sectors/cluster), FAT32 can read partitions up to 2 Terabytes
(4K clusters).
Under NT, FAT is actually
VFAT, Virtual FAT. The
major difference is that hardware is not accessed directly (A virtual device
driver "fools" the system into thinking that it is), which contributes to
robustness. The file system will not crash with the hardware. It relies upon a
linked-list directory structure, which reduces performance on large partitions
(each directory entry is linked to the next--the longer the chain, the slower
the access) and limits its practical size. A FAT partition is required on
RISC machines (for the
boot files) and on dual-boot (NT and DOS/Windows systems)
machines. The VFAT used by NT is more flexible
than the old DOS FAT--filenames up to 255 characters including the entire path
are allowed, periods and spaces in filenames are fine, and case is preserved
(without being case-sensitive--FILE.TXT equals File.TXT equals file.txt)
Restricted characters are the same-- []',"/;:\=+^*?<>|
FAT limitations
- No local security (share
permissions
only)
- Performance
begins dropping on partitions over 200MB, especially with large numbers of
files
- Performance
degrades quickly by file
fragmentation
- Theoretical
upper limit of 4GB (improved from DOS FAT's
2GB)
- Low
fault-tolerance; subject to physical and logical disk
errors
- Supports only
low-level file attributes (read-only, archive, system,
hidden)
- The root
directory is limited to 512 entries. Since long filenames are stored in
secondary directory entries (one per 13 extra characters beyond 8), too many of
those can actually lead to Windows being unable to create files in root, and
quite quickly.
Note:
There is a command-line-only utility to change a partition from FAT to NTFS
– convert.exe. (To convert back to FAT from NTFS requires third-party
software not supported by NT) The syntax is:
C:\ convert [drive letter/partition]:
/FS:NTFS /v
You cannot convert a drive while the
drive is being accessed. It may be scheduled for conversion at next bootup,
before shares are accessible.
Note: To convert from FAT16 to
FAT32, the conversion utility is CVT1.EXE
NTFS
There are two versions of NTFS, NT File
System: 4 (NT) and 5 (2000). The following pertain to both.
- NTFS uses a MFT: Master
File Table. NTFS allows you to adjust the sizes of clusters, and can
support 2 Terabytes (default) up to 16
Exabytes.
- NTFS, as
the name implies, is NT's proprietary file system. It supports far more useful
characteristics
- Fault
tolerance
- Extended
attributes (such as date of creation),
- Object-oriented
file and directory security (including auditing file
use)
- File-level
compression
- Faster
locating method (branching tree), and
- A
truly awesome maximum capacity.
- NTFS keeps a log of all
read/write transactions. For example, if on a SCSI disk, it will automatically
scan for bad clusters, mark them as bad and avoid them, and move data to good
clusters. If the error is discovered during a write, the data will be rewritten
to a sound sector. If a read operation discovers a bad cluster, however, it
cannot be read, and the data is
lost.
- Extended
attributes were added for
POSIX compliance. This
includes time stamping for file creation, accessing, and modification. Filenames
are case sensitive (e.g. file.txt and File.txt are treated as different and can
be stored in the same folder). "Hard links", where the same file is accessed by
two different filenames, is also
supported.
- Permissions
can be set and auditing enabled for individual folders and files. The
permissions differ slightly for files and folders, and can be combined with
normal share permissions to allow very
fine-tuning.
- NTFS
supports compression at the drive/partition-, folder/directory-, or
file-level.
- Search
functions look for files alphabetically in a branching search. This is much
faster than following entries linked in a consecutive chain. Space for new files
is allocated dynamically, which means defragmentation is required much less
frequently.
- The
theoretical maximum size of an NTFS file or partition is 16 Exabytes. No
existing hardware can take advantage of this. An Exabytes is 260
bytes...or a gigabyte OF gigabytes, for a total of 16 billion gigabytes in a
single partition...not a limitation.
NTFS4 Limitations
- Filenames may not contain
the characters
><|*"?/:\
- Does
not support file
encryption
- Works best
on partitions over
50MB
- Cannot format
1.44MB floppies because of high overhead (about 5MB per partition)
required
- If
dual-booting to an OS other than NT, you must have at least one small FAT
partition also.
- Must
reboot after reformatting a ZIP drive or other removable media (looked all over,
and can't find out why)
NTFS4 vs. NTFS5
Windows 2000 uses an updated version of
NTFS (sometimes called NTFS5). The major improvements are:
- File and/or directory
encryption
- Per-user,
per-volume disk quotas
- Hierarchical Storage
Management (reparse points)
- Mount
points
- Distributed
link tracking
support
- Sparse-file
support
- Volume change
tracking
- Encryption.
Encryption.
Encryption.
Windows 2000
Server will require the use of NTFS5 format on all domain controllers.
Similarly, it is likely that most other servers will be using the NTFS5 format
to take advantage of the new Windows 2000 Server features.
Note: Installing Windows 2000 will
automatically convert NTFS4 to NTFS5. Also, NTFS4 cannot repair NTFS5 volumes,
but NTFS5 can repair NTFS4 volumes.
Read more on NTFS5:
msdn.microsoft.com/library/periodic/period00/NTFSPart1.htm
www.microsoft.com/TechNet/win2000/win2ksrv/da1100.asp
http://www.microsoft.com/NTServer/nts/deployment/migration/PrepWinNT/4_ThingsToDo.asp
Read more on Dual Booting issues with
NTFS:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/winnt/winntas/Tips/techrep/dualboot.asp
http://www.sysinternals.com/ntw2k/freeware/NTFSCHK.shtml
Differences between FAT and NTFS and HPFS
(OS/2 file system)
http://support.microsoft.com/support/kb/articles/Q100/1/08.ASP
NTFS Folder and File Permissions
NTFS permissions secure resources and
determine user/group access.
Folder Permissions include:
- Read – ability to
read
- Write –
ability to view attributes,
permissions
- List
– ability to view names of files and
subfolders
- Read/Execute
– read, plus run
applications
- Modify
– Read/Execute and Write permissions, plus modify and
delete
- Full Control
– All of the above, plus changing
permissions
- Deny
– overrides any other permission
File Permissions include:
- Read – ability to
read
- Write –
ability to view attributes,
permissions
- Read/Execute
– read, plus run
applications
- Modify
– Read/Execute and Write permissions, plus modify and
delete
- Full Control
– All of the above, plus changing
permissions
- Deny
– overrides any other permission
Permissions are assigned with the Access
Control List (ACL). User permission entries in that list are called Access
Control Entry (ACE) to allow or deny access to files and folders.
Viruses
Types of Viruses
- Boot Sector – attacks
boot sector, FAT table, partition
table
- Program or
Executable – attacks program files (like .COM, .EXE, .SYS for
example)
- Excel/Word
Macro – infects a document, infects templates and all documents created
afterward
- Trojan
– programs that do something other than what the user thinks they do
- Bimodal or Bipartite
– boot sector and executable
functions
- Polymorphic
virus – changes its signature to prevent detection by anti-virus
software
Virus Sources
- Email attachments (word
document, exe
file...)
- Internet
downloads
- Infected
floppy disk
Common Symptoms:
- Boot
failure
- Reformatted
drives (hard drive,
floppy)
- FAT or MBR
corrupt
- Files
corrupt
- Strange
messages/graphics on the screen
Note: Any error can be caused by a
virus. Always better to do a virus check FIRST, especially when you encounter
strange errors/problems.
Virus Prevention
- Never turn the computer on
(Hey! It works,
okay!?)
- Anti-virus
software (McAffee,
Norton/Symantec,
Dr. Solomon...)
- Regular
updates to your virus software (and regularly scheduled virus
checks)
- Educate users
(virus check email, attachments, Internet
downloads)
- Know where
the software came
from
- Do regular
backup
Note: Mke sure you have clean boot
disks just in case.
Protecting Users from themselves:
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/maintain/protuser.asp
Recovering from a Virus
- Sometimes you can’t.
Accept that now.
- Boot
from a clean floppy and detect, then remove the
virus.
- Restore data
from Backups (do another virus scan – make sure the backup isn’t
infected.)
See also:
Practicing Safe Hex Pt. 1 (About viruses) Practicing Safe Hex Pt. 2 Practicing Safe Hex Pt. 3
Networks
A network is simply two or more computers
able to communicate and share data.
To network any computer, it must have a
unique name (up to 15 characters) on the Network, in addition to a unique MAC
Address and IP Address.
You set up the Computer Name, Workgroup and
Description from Control Panel -> Network -> Identification
tab:
Types of Networks:
- Peer-to-peer (Windows
9x)
- Server-based
(Windows NT and 2000)
See also:
Networking the Basics - Part 1 Networking the Basics - Part 2 Networking the Basics - Part 3
Network Protocols
A
protocol is the
means by which one computer packages data and sends it out over the wire, and
the receiving computer unpackages it for use. Protocols define a common standard
for communication between machines, and specify the sequence of actions taken
during transmission.
Network protocols break data into
packets for
transmission. This is more efficient and fail-safe than a continuous stream over
the wire. If an error occurred, it would affect the entire transmission and the
whole thing would have to be resent. If a packet is lost or corrupted, the
packet is simply resent with less time and effort. Breaking data into packets
also means several machines can send data at about the same time.
A packet consists of three parts (exact
contents differ between protocols):
- Header--begins with a
signal that a packet is being sent, names/addresses of source and destination
machines, and synchronization info for
reassembly
- Data--the
actual information "inside the
envelope"
- Trailer--usually
contains error-catching information, such as Cyclic Redundancy
Check
The protocol at the source machine is
responsible for breaking the data into the right size chunks, attaching header
and trailer information, and transmitting the packet. At the receiving end, the
protocol reads all headers going by for its own name or address, intercepts the
right packets, strips off the "envelope", and places the data in a cache or
buffer. The "envelopes" are then used to reassemble the data chunks into the
proper order and check for errors.
When we
refer to a “Protocol”, we most often mean a group, or suite, of
separate protocols that work together or separately. When designed to work in a
specific sequence, the suite is referred to as a stack. Common protocol
stacks/suites are:
- Open Systems
Interconnection - the OSI protocol suite was designed to link many
dissimilar hardware platforms running many disparate
OSes.
- AppleTalk
- modelled in layers after OSI; provides connectivity among Apple machines
and PC-based
networks.
- NetBEUI
- NetBIOS Extended User Interface is proprietary to Microsoft networks. It
is not routable and is only used within Local Area Networks. It is fast, simple,
and self-configuring. It operates by means of broadcasts and user-friendly
names, used in small
networks
- IPX/SPX
- Novell's routable protocol suite for a client-server environment.
Partially based on Xerox Network Systems protocols. It used to require a
separate NIC to run; with Open Data-link Interface, can now be bound to the same
NIC with other suites. Netware utilizes a "default tree and context" or a binary
mode. Netware 3.x is bound to a single server, and needs to be configured for
several different "frame types". Netware 4.x eliminates these details, and
operates by means of an IPX address composed of the hardware address, the
network address, and a socket number. With Netware 5.x and up, Novell is phasing
out IPX/SPX, and switching over to TCP/IP. To avoid paying licensing fees,
Microsoft has developed its own implementation of IPX/SPX (called NetWare Link)
for connecting to systems running older NetWare
versions.
- Internet
Protocol suite - composed of hundreds of separate protocols, and commonly
referred to as TCP/IP. Used on the Internet, but also common in
LANs.
Installing and Configuring NIC
To install a Network Interface
Card:
- Power off the PC and remove the mains power cord
- Take ESD precautions
- Remove system case cover
- Find available expansion slot
- Remove blanking plate (covering slot at the
back of the system case)
- Insert NIC, pressing
firmly into place, and securing with a
screw
- Replace case
- Connect external cables (including the mains
power cord)
- Power on
- Check BIOS, Plug n Play
- Install drivers (Add/Remove Hardware or
Network)
- Check for conflicts in Device Manager
When you turn the computer on, if the NIC
is PnP, the system should automatically detect the new hardware. You may be
prompted for the driver to run it and allocate resources accordingly.
If the system did not automatically find
the NIC, you can go to Control Panel -> Add/Remove Hardware to install
it manually.
You can also add the driver (or update it)
manually by going to:
- Control Panel ->
Network
- Click
Add
- Select
Adapter
- Find the right make, model and
click OK
- Click Have Disk if you
have the driver disk
Note: If you are troubleshooting a
problem device, and you suspect the driver – choose the driver Windows has
for your piece of hardware, and see if that fixes the problem.
Installing and Configuring Network Connection
Configuring networking can be done during
Setup (installation), by going to Control Panel -> Network, or by
right clicking on Network Neighborhood and selecting
Properties:
From Network Properties you can configure:
- Client
software to access resources across the network
- Adapter
settings and drivers
- Protocols
to be used (including TCP/IP, NetBEUI, etc)
- Services
like File and Print Sharing
Windows 98 view:
You need to enable File and Print
Sharing, before you select certain files, folders, drives, or printers to be
shared:
Shared resources look like this:
Shared Folder
|
Shared Drive
|
Mapped Drive
|
|
|
|
More resources:
How to share a local printer
Network Drives
To access a drive across the network, you
must map the drive and assign it a drive letter:
- Find the drive you want to map to in Network
Neighborhood / My Network Places
- Right click
the share name and select Map
Drive
- Choose the drive
letter
- Select Reconnect at login
- Click OK
Mapped drives follow
UNC (Universal Naming
Convention) syntax:
Path:
\\servername\share
Network Printers
You connect to Network printers from the
Network Neighborhood / My Network Places window:
- Click Install New
Printer
- Select Network
Printer
- Select the
Printer
- Enter the printer
name
- Choose whether this is your default
printer
- Click
Finish
Internet
The Internet is the biggest WAN there is.
In many ways, it is the conglomeration of all networks together. It is made up
of dissimilar networks, OSes, hardware. What enables them all to talk on the
Internet is common protocols, and universal standards for software and
hardware.
- URLs
– Uniform Resource
Locator
- HTML web
pages
- Web
browsers
- Electronic
mail
- Newsgroups
- FTP
and Gopher
- IRC
– Internet Relay
Chat
- Internet phone
and videoconferencing
Internet Access
Internet Access requires:
- Dialup services (telephone,
DSL, ISDN) or leased lines (cable modem,
T1...)
- Internet
Service Provider
(ISP)
- Browser
- TCP/IP
To access the Internet, you must first
configure TCP/IP. In Windows 9x:
- Go to Control Panel -> Network -> Add
(we’ve been here already,
remember?)
- Select Protocol and click
Add
- Select Microsoft and
TCP/IP
If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.
- Click Properties to Configure the IP Address, WINS and
DNS Configurations. When you select Obtain IP address automatically,
Windows is using DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol). WINS config is
the Microsoft Mechanism that resolves computer names to IP addresses. DNS config
resolves UNC names (MS servers) of TCP/IP Hosts to IP
addresses.
Installing and Configuring Internet Connection
Under My Computer, or in Start
-> Programs -> Accessories, choose Dial-up Networking, and
select Make New Connection:
- Name the
connection
- Select the device (modem) to connect
with
- Enter the phone number and
country
- Click
Finish
The new connection will be listed beside
the Make New Connection icon in Dial-up Networking:
Note: Know the Properties
display when you right click on the connection.
Windows 2000 Connection Properties
window:
Configuring Internet Explorer
You configure your Internet browser to
connect using:
- Dial-up connection
(modem)
- Proxy Server
(ISP
gateway)
- LAN
You can also configure all your Internet
Options (from the Control Panel):
TCP/IP
TCP/IP is the Internet Protocol that
provides a communication method for all systems connecting to the ‘Net. It
is composed of hundreds of separate protocols, and commonly referred to as
TCP/IP.
Some of the important ones are:
- TCP - Transmission
Control Protocol takes the datastream and divides it into packets, then delivers
them and waits for an acknowledgement. At the other end it receives the packets,
sends an ACK, and reassembles the packets in sequence. It establishes a session
with the receiving machine, defining session parameters with a "three-way
handshake".
- IP
- Internet Protocol places source and destination IP addresses in the
header, and assigns the routing
information.
- ICMP
- Internet Control Message Protocol handles transmission errors. The PING
utility uses ICMP. Some routers can also send ICMP "source quench" messages to a
host to slow the rate of transmission if the router is being
overworked.
- UDP
- User Datagram Protocol functions similarly to TCP, but does not establish
a session or verify transmission. This is called "connectionless". Less reliable
than TCP but
faster.
- HTTP -
HyperText Transfer Protocol transmits data via HyperText Markup Language. It is
the basis for the World Wide Web. An HTML page may contain links to any other
HTML document. It operates over TCP (connection-oriented) but may or may not
establish a session for longer than the transmission, depending on the version.
Most of the Web now supports HTTP 1.1, which allows persistent connections. It
is called a "stateless" protocol because commands are executed without regard
for the previous command. To make Web pages interactive, other technologies such
as ActiveX, Java, and JavaScript were developed, as well as "cookies"--small
files that are stored on the client and returned to the server to identify the
user and customize the page the server
sends.
- ARP -
Address Resolution Protocol enables the discovery of physical hardware
addresses. A host broadcasts a request by IP address, and the remote host with
that IP address returns a message containing its MAC address. Both types of
address must be in the header of a packet. The physical address never changes,
but the destination IP address changes every "hop" (any passage through a router
or host).
- RARP
- Reverse ARP is used by the host to discover its own IP address. The host
broadcasts its physical address, and the RARP server (a piece of software, not a
separate machine) returns the information. Mostly important to diskless
workstations.
- SNMP
- Simple Network Management Protocol enables monitoring of network activity
when installed. By itself, it does nothing; it enables separate monitoring
utilities to report.
- Gopher - A
pre-WWW cataloguing utility now replaced by HTTP. Almost
extinct.
TCP/IP Utilities
- FTP - File Transfer
Protocol is an older but still preferred method of down- and up-loading files
across the Net. Based on connection-oriented
TCP.
- TFTP -
Trivial File Transfer Protocol is similar to FTP but uses
UDP.
- Telnet -
Emulates a terminal and is used to execute commands on a server. Supports
character-based functions only; GUI functions require the X-Window system on the
client.
- RCP, RSH,
REXEC - also for getting or putting files on a server. Authentication is
handled differently, either by password or a username match in the server's
.RHOSTS file.
- LPR
- runs a print job on a host running Line Printer
Dæmon
- PING
- "Packet INternet Groper" (Doubtful--probably just named after the SONAR
term) enables verification that an IP address is active on the network. Without
switches applied it returns the number of hops, the name of the router or host,
and transit time in milliseconds. Go to a command line and enter "PING /?" for
switch
syntax.
- IPCONFIG
- a WinNT/2000 command that verifies the TCP/IP configurations of the host.
The default is to display the IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway.
Adding the switch /all returns more information...much
more.
- WINIPCFG
- a Win9x command similar to above. Returns a GUI
window.
- NSLOOKUP
- views entries on a DNS server; displays domain names paired with IP
addresses.
- NETSTAT
- displays current TCP/IP connections and protocol stats. Enter NETSTAT /?
at the command prompt for a list of options available with
this.
- NBTSTAT
- returns status of NetBIOS names resolved to IP addresses, and checks the
status of NetBIOS sessions. Again, NBTSTAT /? gets you help on the
switches.
- ROUTE
- views and enables editing of the host's routing tables. Used especially if
the default gateway develops
problems.
- TRACERT
- displays all the routing hops a packet takes to its destination. Results
may vary, as "intelligent" routers may send packets by different routes
depending upon the traffic on a particular segment. TRACERT /? returns the
switch
options.
- WHOIS
and FINGER - returns user info on domains and email addresses,
respectively.
Domain Names
IP Addresses
Every computer on the Internet has a 32-bit
unique IP address,
which looks like this:
206.112.74.27
But all those numbers are hard to remember,
much less type properly. So, an alternative addressing method called FQDN (Fully
Qualified Domain Names) is used.
Domain names are user-friendly versions of
the IP address:
www.brainbuzz.com
= 206.112.74.27
Domains
Top-level domain - .com, .org, .net, edu,
.ca, .au ...
Sub-domains – identify the company
(brainbuzz, ebay, amazon, etc)
Local domains – specify a division
within the company (eg, cramsession.brainbuzz.com)
Host – www, www2...
URLs
URLs are made up of a:
- Protocol – http:,
ftp:, mailto:, irc:
etc
- Host name (domain
+ sub-domain + local domain [if any] + host) –
cramsession.brainbuzz.com
- File
path – to the exact web page - /cramsession/comptia/default.asp
e.g.
http://cramsession.brainbuzz.com/cramsession/comptia/default.asp
Email addresses are made up of
a:
- Protocol – mailto:
- Identifier –
e.g. whomever@wherever.com
Special thanks to Cherina Sparks and
sc0rp10n for contributing this Cramsession. For feedback from the
authors, please post a message labelled "Attention Cramsession Author"
here:
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