A+ Operating System Technologies

A+ Operating System Technologies

Home

Certifications

Cisco

Downloads

Protocols

RemoteAccess

Security

Telecommunications

Tools

Unix

Web

What is an OS?

Every computer needs an Operating System. At the most basic level an Operating System (OS) is the interface between you, your software applications, and your computer hardware.

Functions

Operating Systems interpret user commands and instructions (like typing on the keyboard or clicking with the mouse) and send requests to the proper application or device. An OS not only provides a user interface (text or graphic) to access/organize/manipulate/store data, but can also provide security and multitasking capabilities. Generally the OS is made up of a few core files with additional files for extended functionality and backward capability.

Primary OS functions:

Communication (methods of communication) with hardware/software
User interface
Input/Output (standard, devices)
Add, delete, move, store programs and data

Some important concepts to know about an operating system are:

Minimum hardware requirements and recommendations (memory, processor, disk space, input/output devices)
Boot files (to make an emergency boot disk) and sequence
Important files and setup information
New OS features
File system structure
Compatible applications

Components

Know how to find and use the following Windows system components thoroughly:

Control Panel
My Computer
Windows Explorer
System Tools and Utilities
Internet Explorer (customize)
HELP

Remember: There are usually at least 3 ways to accomplish any task in any version of Windows. The exam may only offer you ONE. You will need to know multiple ways to accomplish tasks and find things.

Help: http://www.microsoft.com/technet/maintain/hlpusr.asp

Command Prompt (DOS)

For the most part, you will not need to know DOS as an operating system for this exam. You will, however, need to know how to use Command Prompt (or Command Line) utilities and execute commands from the Command Prompt – especially for troubleshooting (booting from an emergency boot disk, for example).

DOS System Files

History: DOS is a 16-bit (FAT16), text-based interface OS for file and disk management, now it is integrated as the MS-DOS Command Prompt application in Windows.

Memory Management

DOS is also quite particular about the amount of memory your system has. For more information, read up on the DOS memory model.

Architecture

To boot, DOS needs three core files and two configuration files, found in the root directory, loaded by the boot sector. If any of the three core files are missing, you will get the error "Missing operating system."

IO.SYS is a core, hidden file that contains basic I/O device drivers and controls the boot process, including loading the files that follow it
MSDOS.SYS is a core, hidden file that contains the DOS kernel (the main part of the OS) code. This file is the interface between applications and hardware drivers held in IO.SYS. (**NOTE** in Windows, this file is a text file, NOT the kernel of the Windows OS)
CONFIG.SYS is a configuration text file that contains commands to load device drivers, memory managers, and system hardware configuration settings. These include DEVICE= and DEVICEHIGH=, for example.
COMMAND.COM is a core file that provides the user interface, sometimes called the shell or Dosshell. It interprets and executes what is entered at the command prompt.
AUTOEXEC.BAT is a configuration text file that holds a list of boot DOS commands, like PROMPT $P$G, some TSRs, and the MSCDEX drive label to read the CD-ROM.

DOS needs only:

IO.SYS
MSDOS.SYS
COMMAND.COM

Additional Driver Files in DOS directory:

HIGHMEM.SYS – Makes extended memory available
EMM386.SYS – Simulates expanded memory, access to UMA for device drivers and TSRs
MOUSE.SYS
SMARTDRV.EXE – Disk caching
ANSI.SYS – Display, cursor, and keyboard assignments
POWER.EXE – Power saving support

Command Prompt Utilities

You should practice using the following, or at least have an idea how and when to use them:

FDISK.EXE
FORMAT.EXE
SYS.EXE
EDIT.EXE
HIMEM.SYS
EMM386.EXE
SMARTDRV.EXE (for disk caching)
MSD.EXE
MSCDEX.EXE (for CD ROM support)
MEM.EXE
ATTRIB.EXE
DEFRAG.EXE (also, from within Windows)
DELTREE.EXE
EXPAND.EXE
LABEL.EXE
SCANDISK.EXE
SHARE.EXE
EXTRACT.EXE (for those CAB files)

Command Prompt Commands and Syntax

Helpful to know first:

/? – Shows all the switches for any given command
Wildcards – asterisk and question mark
- ? - Replaces any single character (eg, ??.sys)
- * - Replaces any number of characters (eg, *.* finds all files)

DIR – Shows the contents of a directory

/P – Pause after each screen
/W – Wide list format

CD – Changes directories

\ - Goes to root

MD – Make (create) a directory

RD – Remove directory/subdirectory

REN – Rename file [old name] [new name]

DEL – Delete files

DELTREE – Delete entire tree (including subdirectories, files, and directory)

TREE – display the directory structure with all subdirectories

| more – displays one screen at a time

MOVE – Move files

SYS – Copies the 3 DOS system files to a partition/drive, making it bootable

COPY – Copy files and directories [from] [to]

XCOPY – Directory-level copy (with extra switches)

/S – Copies system files
/E – Copies empty subdirectories as well
/H – Copies hidden files as well
/V – Verifies each file as it is written

DISKCOPY – Copies entire disk

ATTRIB – sets Attributes of a file

+/-R – Read Only
+/-A - Archive
+/-S - System
+/-H - Hidden

VER - Displays the MS-DOS version number

SETVER – Displays or updates the current version table

MEM - Displays the amount of used and free memory

/C – will show programs loaded into the first 1MB of memory (conventional, upper, reserved, extended)

DOS Commands

DOS for Generation Y by Hal Bennick

Checking Drives

CHKDSK - Checks the disk status and displays a status report (Can fix disk errors)

/F – Fixes/Repairs lost clusters/chains

SCANDISK - Starts Microsoft Scandisk, a disk analysis and repair tool, that checks a drive for errors and corrects any problems it finds

Note: Key in troubleshooting

DEFRAG – defragmentation of a hard drive

EDIT – enables editing

UNFORMAT – unformats a disk

/TEST - Lists all the files/directories that would be recovered by UNFORMAT

UNDELETE – for recovering deleted files,

Only works if they haven’t been overwritten since their deletion

MSCDEX – CD ROM driver support

SCANREG – Scans registry

FORMAT – For (re)creating file systems

[drive letter] /S – makes the drive bootable (system)

FDISK – For (re)creating partitions (see below)

Partitioning Drives

Partitions are either primary (bootable) or extended (not bootable, logical drives). The primary partition is always C:. Your primary partition stores the OS and the Master Boot Record (MBR). FDISK will only allow you to create ONE primary partition, even though you can have up to 4 (dual-booting).

If you have a large hard disk, and the system can only see (for example) 2.1 GB or 8.4 GB, that is a BIOS limitation or file system limitation. The maximum partition size (FAT16 – 2.1 GB; FAT32 – 2 TB) refers to the primary partition only.

NOTE: One drive, one primary partition. Two drives, multiple partitions.

Windows 3.x

Historical Information only: Windows 3.x, while not a true operating system, is a 16-bit (FAT16) GUI (Graphical User Interface) for DOS. Windows 3.11 (Windows for Workgroups) also provides peer-to-peer networking functionality (sharing resources).

Windows 3.x required a 386 with at least 2 MB RAM, DOS 3.1, a floppy drive, and 6 MB of free disk space. Its main components are the File Manager and the Program Manager (interface file is PROGMAN.INI).

To start Windows 3.x, DOS has to boot and the DEVICE=HIMEM.SYS must be loaded. From there, WIN.COM is loaded (typing WIN at the command prompt or adding WIN to the last line of AUTOEXEC.BAT) which executes the GUI and the kernel of Windows 3.x:

KRNL386.EXE
USER.EXE
GDI.EXE
SYSTEM.INI
WIN.INI
PROGMAN.EXE (Program Manager – shell program)

NOTE: The main INI files were SYSTEM.INI, WIN.INI and PROTOCOL.INI. The Registry replaces these in Windows 9x.

Windows 9x

In contrast to Windows 3.x, Windows 95 was a true OS. It is a 32-bit (FAT32) OS with backward compatibility for FAT16 files and programs. Windows 95 had two releases – OSR1 and OSR2. 95 OSR2 and 98 allow hard drive partitions greater than 2 GB, and fully integrate Internet Explorer. It provides a GUI, a common user interface, and a customizable interface. Using a swap file, it can use virtual memory. It also allows data sharing, greater networking abilities, and multitasking. And, most importantly, Windows 95 and 98 provide plug and play (PnP) support (Plug n Play is another way of saying built-in driver support.)

Windows 9x still needs DOS.
Windows 9x supports extended file names up to 255 characters in length.
Windows 9x can run 16-bit or 32-bit applications (with the DLL files for both to maintain backward capability)

Worth noting is:

CONFIG.SYS in Windows 9x replaces SYSTEM.INI (resources) in Windows 3.x and WIN.INI replaces AUTOEXEC.BAT (settings), though both files are still there (even in Windows 2000) for backward capability. Believe it or not SYSTEM.INI is still a required file to run Windows 9x.

Installing Windows 9x

Windows 95 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations

	Min Required	Recommended
Processor	386DX	Pentium
Memory	4-8 MB	16-32 MB
Display	VGA	SVGA
Disk Space	50-55 MB	200 MB
Others	Floppy drive, keyboard	CDROM, mouse

Windows 98 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations

	Min Required	Recommended
Processor	486DX	Pentium
Memory	24 MB	32-64 MB
Display	VGA	SVGA
Disk Space	225 MB	400 MB
Others	Floppy drive, keyboard	CDROM, mouse

Installation Process

Prepare a DOS Boot Disk, that includes:
- FORMAT
- FDISK
- EDIT
- SYS
- ATTRIB
- CONFIG.SYS
- AUTOEXEC.BAT
From a Command Prompt, type SETUP
SCANDISK runs first, then you get the setup window
Checks the system for the minimum requirements
End User License Agreement (EULA) – and the pleasure of agreeing to it
Select directory (default is C:\WINDOWS)
Choose Setup Type

Typical (default option, for most desktops)
Portable (for laptops, installs briefcase, for example)
Compact (if limited disk space)
Custom (for experienced users)
Fill in the Windows Product Key (I recommend writing it right on the CD itself!)
Fill in user information: name, company
You will be prompted whether to analyze your computer before the install or not (devices, hardware detection)

(You will be prompted through a series of pop up windows for particular components, depending on which setup type you are installing. If Custom was chosen, you can select the components individually here.)
Prompt for Networking information and options (whether or not you have a NIC)
Prompt to make an Emergency Boot (Startup) Disk
And now you wait....... while a big white line fills up and becomes a big blue line (i.e., the big INSTALL) and you get to read the promos windows about Windows.
Finishing Setup – Restarts computer
You will be prompted for your password to Microsoft Networking
PnP Hardware will be set up
Control Panel settings, including Time Zone and Printers can be selected and/or installed next.
And now you’ve installed Windows 95 or 98.

Failed Install

If for any reason the Windows Setup crashes and burns, you will need these three files to recover from a failed install:

SETUPLOG.TXT
DETLOG.TXT
DETCRASH.LOG

Emergency Startup Disk

You’ve will need to have at least ONE of these laying around for that one time that everything is utterly pooched (technical jargon for screwed up beyond recognition). It might be you or it might be a user that got it to that point, but you have to be ready to fix it.

To create a Startup disk you can:

Make one when installing the OS, or
Go to Control Panel -> Add/Remove Programs -> Startup Disk -> Create Disk.

Then put a HD (high density 1.44 MB) floppy disk in the A: drive and click OK. The files on the Startup disk include:

ATTRIB.EXE
CHKDSK.EXE
COMMAND.COM
DRVSPACE.BIN (disk compression)
EBD.SYS (Emergency Boot Disk identifier)
EDIT.COM
FDISK.EXE
FORMAT.EXE
IO.SYS
MSDOS.SYS
REGEDIT.EXE (Registry editor)
SCANDISK.EXE
SYS.COM
UNINSTAL.EXE (Removes Windows 95)

Note: And EBD (Emergency Boot Disk) is not the same as an ERD (Emergency Repair Disk) – both will be covered later.

Note: To edit AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, WIN.INI,and SYSTEM.INI, you go to Start -> Run, and type SYSEDIT.

Upgrading to Windows 9x

Before upgrading to Windows 95 from Windows 3.x or DOS, you should edit CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT, removing any unnecessary entries and TSRs.

When upgrading, you will be asked if you want to save the system files. If you do save your system files, they will be renamed, but you can uninstall them from Control Panel -> Add/Remove Programs

Boot Sequence of Windows 9x

To boot Windows 95, there are 4 stages: Hardware/BIOS, to Real Mode, to Protected Mode, to the OS and desktop initialization, in this order:

BIOS

POST – Power On Self Test
PnP BIOS – assigning system resources (without conflicts)
IPL or Bootstrap – initiates the program to load the OS into memory

Real Mode (16 bit)

IO.SYS – takes over from BIOS, “Starting Windows 95...”
MSDOS.SYS – IO.SYS processes MSDOS.SYS and parameters in AUTOEXEC.BAT
CONFIG.SYS (not needed, 95 defaults override it)
COMMAND.COM – Command Line interface (processes requests before they are sent directly to the processor _ a translator)
AUTOEXEC.BAT – COMMAND.COM processes AUTOEXEC.BAT, to load TSRs and DOS applications (not needed, 95 defaults override it)

Protected Mode (32 bit)

WIN.COM (automatically loads now by default)
VMM32.VxD – virtual machine manager
SYSTEM.INI – loads DEVICE= parameters

OS and Desktop (16-bit and 32-bit for backward compatibility)

KERNEL32.DLL, KRNL386.EXE (kernel)
GDI32.EXE, GDI.EXE
USER32.EXE, USER.EXE
EXPLORER.EXE (interface)

Startup Menu

If Window 9x failed to boot properly previously, if Windows detects a problem, or if you press F8 while it is loading, you will go to the Startup Menu.

Normal – no troubleshooting help
Logged – bootlog.txt to find where the failure occurred
Safe Mode (F5) – default after problems – does not process the Registry, CONFIG.SYS, AUTOEXEC.BAT, SYSTEM.INI, drivers, or extended peripherals
Safe Mode with network support (F6) – Safe mode but loads NIC drivers, protocols, and clients
Step-by-step Confirmation (SHIFT F8) – choose which commands are executed during the boot sequence
Command Prompt only – when Safe Mode fails
Safe Mode Command Prompt (SHIFT F5) – to reinstall from scratch
DOS (F4)

For example, if you are having trouble on Bootup, try Step-by-Step Confirmation, which goes through these steps, in this order:

Create BOOTLOG.TXT? - Y/N
Load CONFIG.SYS? - Y/N
Load HIGHMEM.SYS? - Y/N
Start EMM386.EXE? – Y/N
Start SETVER.EXE? - Y/N
Load DISPLAY.SYS? - Y/N
Load COUNTRY.SYS? - Y/N
Load DBLBUFF.SYS? - Y/N
Load IFSHLP.SYS? - Y/N
Load AUTOEXEC.BAT? - Y/N (start up command files) ...
Load WIN? - Y/N
Load WIN Drivers? - Y/N
Enable Network Support - Y/N
Start Display - Y/N ... (Windows Start up screen)
(more device drivers) - Y/N
MSMOUSE.VXD- Y/N

Registry

The Registry’s function is to store system PnP and hardware configuration information and user-specific details. The Registry replaces the .INI files of Windows 3.x, and stores the system hardware and configuration information in the /WINDOWS/ folder. The Registry is divided into two files, both read-only and hidden:

SYSTEM.DAT – system settings
USER.DAT – users settings

The Registry, though resembling a directory tree structure, is a database of keys: each key has a value or set of subkeys. You can edit and access the Registry using REGEDIT.EXE.

Top-level Keys:

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE – common hardware settings
HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG – current config of hardware
HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT – file associations
HKEY_DYN_DATA – hardware devices (info held in RAM)
HKEY_USERS – config information of all users ever logged into the system
HKEY_ CURRENT_USER – config information for current user

You can search, add a key, add or change a value, delete a key or value, or rename keys and values.

Go to Start -> Run -> Regedit

If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.

Windows automatically backups up the registry every time it is booted. The previous version of the registry files are SYSTEM.DA0 and USER.DA0.

The Registry can be used for troubleshooting and performance enhancement in Windows 9x.

Navigation

Navigating through Windows 9x becomes second nature after awhile, but you will need to know specific details of where to find things in Windows. So, take some notes on how to get to (and what you can do when you get there):

Windows Explorer – folder structure and files (Folders replace DOS directories)
My Computer – floppy drive, hard drive, CD ROM, Control Panel, Dialup Networking, Printers
My Computer –> Properties – System Properties, Device Manager, Hardware Profiles Configuration – ** Getting System Information **
Disk Cleanup Utilities, Error-checking, Backup, Defragmentation
Scheduled Tasks
Control Panel – Telephony Services, Add/Remove Programs, Add/Remove Software, System, Mouse, Display, Networking...
Making Shortcuts
Changing/Displaying Properties
Hidden file extensions (in List view: View -> Options ->Hide MSDOS file extensions)
Folder, file and print sharing
Finding folders/files (Search)
Task Manager

98 My Computer:

98 System Tools:

If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.

Windows File Management

Know how to:

Create, move, rename, and delete Folders
Create, move, rename, and delete Files
Change the appearance of a folder (icons, list, details, reorder by name, date...)
Drag and drop folders, single files, multiple files
Create shortcuts

Note:

Folder names cannot contain the characters: \ / : * ? " < > |
Filenames cannot contain the characters: \ / : * ? " < > | and [ ]

Windows Keyboard Shortcuts to know

CTRL A – select all
CTRL C - copy
CTRL V - paste
CTRL X - cut
CTRL Z – undo
ALT TAB – toggle between open applications
ALT PRINTSCREEN – capture top window open (including error messages)
Windows Key – start menu
SHIFT click – selects all between two clicks
CTRL click – selects just those clicked
RIGHT CLICK – reveal menu selections for any file, folder, shortcut...
CTRL ALT DEL – launches Task Manager (** not in NT or 2000 though)

Backups

Copy – copies selected folders and files to the backup device without turning off archive bit
Full – backs up every folder and file, turns off archive bit
Incremental – backs up only folders and files with the archive bit on, and turns off the archive bit
Differential – backs up only folders and files with the archive bit on, but doesn’t turn the archive bit off.

Configuring Windows 9x

Drivers

Plug n Play (Configuration Manager, PC BIOS, Registry, Bus and port emulators, Resource allocation, setup and device installer)
Control Panel -> Add New Hardware Wizard
Device Manager -> Resources (IRQ, I/O)
Right-click Properties
Advanced properties

Printers

To install a printer in Windows 9x/NT/2000, go to Setting -> Printers -> Add Printer, or My Computer -> Printers, or Control Panel -> Printers, and walk through the Print Wizard.

View Print Queue
Add Local/Network Printer
Port LPT1
Install Printer Drivers
Changing default printer and other printer settings Printers -> Properties

Note: If print jobs are garbled check Spool Settings:

Enhanced Metafile (EMF – independent of printer type) and RAW (printer-specific) are file formats for print jobs sent to the spool. Printer Properties -> Spool Settings -> Details

Memory Management

Real Mode – single task environment (DOS)
Protected Mode – virtual machine created to access extended memory; memory and hardware are “protected” from direct access from applications by the OS (allocating processor time and memory)
Conventional Memory – 0-640KB (runs DOS)
Upper Memory Area (UMA) – 640–1024KB (video RAM, BIOS) – made up of Upper Memory Blocks (UMB)
Extended memory (XMS) – everything above 1MB (1024KB): Pentiums can support up to 4 GB of memory.
High Memory Area (HMA) – 1024-1088KB – first 64KB of extended memory

At the Command Prompt, type “MEM /C” to see your memory information.

HIMEM.SYS enables Windows 9x to use extended memory. It must be loaded in the CONFIG.SYS file, like this:
DEVICE=C:\<DOS OR WINDOWS directory>\HIGHMEM.SYS

EMM386.EXE enables DOS to access XMS.

Windows 9x Utilities

SMARTDrive is used to improve disk performance with RAM and read/write caching.

Virtual Memory, using hard disk space as simulated memory, in Windows 9x is configured in My Computer -> Properties -> System -> Performance. Do not disable virtual memory.

Windows 98:

If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.

Start -> Programs -> Accessories -> System Tools ->

Disk Clean up – deletes .tmp files, empties recycle bin and Temporary Internet Files

Defrag – defragments a hard drive
System Monitor is a Windows utility that tracks system resources(troubleshooting)
MS System Information: for reading configuration and registry information

Dr. Watson – captures debugging information when an application fault occurs.
Maintenance Wizard – used to schedule tasks like backup, defrag, disk cleanup, etc.
Backup – from the Maintenance Wizard

Troubleshooting Windows 9x

Troubleshooting procedures

Gather information and ask questions
Be prepared
Be calm
Take your time
Concentrate
Be flexible (Don’t assume anything)
Consult (find resources)
Know when to give in
Cure the problem not the symptom
Do not create new problems in process
DOCUMENT everything you do

Common Errors and Problems

Symptom	Diagnosis
“No OS Found”	Corrupt or missing IO.SYS and/or MSDOS.SYS. “SYS C:” restores them
“SYSTEM DISK INVALID “	Missing IO.SYS “SYS C:” to restore
“Invalid VxD dynamic link call from IFSMGR(03)”	Missing MSDOS.SYS “SYS C:” to restore
“Missing COMMAND.COM” or “Bad or missing command interpreter” may be looking for PATH	COMMAND.COM missing or corrupt. Use an EBD and copy the file to the C:\ or “SYS C”: to restore
General Protection Fault (GPF)	Same memory allocated for more than one application
Windows Protection Errors	Device driver failures or conflicts in CONFIG.SYS and SYSTEM.INI Run SYSEDIT and start disabling DEVICE=
Fatal Exception Errors BSOD	A software or hardware error or illegal instruction that windows cannot contain.
Illegal Operation Errors (My favorite peeve)	Illegal Operation errors or 'program crashes' are actually invalid page faults (IPF). The error message is similar to: 'This program has performed an illegal operation and will be shut down. Usually transitory, but see below if not
Windows not booting completely	Try Safe Mode (without drivers, first, in case of conflicts) – which bypasses AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS
Hard drive errors	Run CHKDSK and SCANDISK
Error in CONFIG.SYS, line xxx	Put a semi-colon at the beginning of the line to bypass it. If everything works, remove the line completely.
SYSTEM.INI not found, and Windows won’t boot	Restore from EBD.
Won’t boot to GUI	Corrupted SWAP file. Boot into Safe Mode (F5) and disable Virtual Memory (temporarily – remember to enable it as soon as things are working!!). Usually when running out of HDD space.
Corrupted registry	Restore from backup SYSTEM.DA0 and USER.DA0

Invalid Page Faults

“This program has performed an Illegal Operation and will be shut down.” (aka, this is why we HATE Windows at least sometimes).

A key part of troubleshooting IPFs is to determine how widespread the problem is:

Is the problem reproducible or does it occur at random?
Does the problem occur only in the current application or in other applications as well?
Are there specific, known issues about the application that describe your problem? (check the manufacturers website – maybe a known bug)
Does the problem happen only with a particular file handled by that application?
Does the problem occur only at a particular time, such as while printing?

If you cannot make the error occur again, you can assume you have solved the problem. If the error occurs in other applications, most probably the fault is not with the application but with Windows, a component of Windows or a piece of software that is running in the background. Check with the program vendor's site if there are known issues with the application that may cause IPFs under specific circumstances.

If the IPF is specific to a certain file opened by this application, the file may be too large, or damaged.

Read More on General Windows Troubleshooting:

http://www.windrivers.com/tech/troubleshoot/index.htm

Study Break:

Windows 98 Easter Egg Hunt

Common Problems

Some things to always check, especially if any changes have been made recently, are:

Check connectors and cables
Check port, device
Check BIOS
Check software configuration (drivers, etc)
Check for conflicts
Reseat components, if possible
Virus check

New Hard drive causing problems?

http://www.microsoft.com/technet/win98/recreg.asp

Troubleshooting Printer Connections and Configurations

Printer not working: switched on, plugged in, online, check cables
Paper jam: cheap paper, wrong type, stored improperly, loaded improperly
Output corruption: printer driver, check setup
Poor quality: toner/ribbon low, cheap/wrong paper
Laser memory errors: not enough RAM
Blank pages: OPC drum, corona wire improperly seated.

Windows NT 4.0

This A+ OS exam doesn’t cover much of NT, but you need to know about it as a legacy OS. I’ve included a bunch of information that applies to both Windows NT and 2000, and will help you study – even if you don’t get many questions on this section in the exam.

You will need to know about upgrading to/from NT, NT File System, and the differences between NT and 9x/2000. The rest just helps to know.

Note: every time I just say NT (and the exam too), I mean NT 4.0.

History of NT

In 1993, Windows NT (New Technology, supposedly) 3.1 was introduced. The design requirements for this operating system included:

Extensibility--designed in modules, which can be replaced or upgraded without a complete overhaul of the system, only of the section of code concerned
Portability--can run on RISC or CISC-based systems (at the time, more important than now. Reduced Instruction-Set Computing machines were the powerhouses then)
Reliability and Robustness--refers to the ability of the OS to insulate applications and processes from each other so that one may crash without affecting the others and bringing down the whole system
Compatibility--able to run applications designed for DOS, Win16, Win32, OS/2, and POSIX-compliant systems (a UNIX standard). Also able to provide full connectivity on a network with Apple, Novell, Banyan, UNIX, and IBM machines.
Distributed processing--in a client-server relationship, tasks are doled out according to the capabilities of each--a distributed application will perform the heavier processing tasks on the server, and the graphic-intensive user interface on the client.
Security--network resources are protected from intrusion, damage, and theft through an object-oriented file system and access control lists.

The original NT 3.1 fell short of some of these. A later and common upgrade was NT 3.5 (quickly modified to NT 3.51--NT 3.5 is rare), and the present widely used version, Windows NT 4.0 in 1996. "NT4" has since had seven Service Packs published which fix "bugs", add newly developed features, upgrade internal utilities (such as IE and IIS) or (in the case of SP5) fix previous SPs... ;)

Versions

There are two versions of NT4 (though you really just need to know the first one):

Workstation
Server

Both are 32-bit multitasking operating systems designed to run in a networking environment, rather than a standalone role. WINNT 4.0 t is meant to be used in a business setting rather than for home use.

Though NT Server offers a few more capabilities, the Setup program for both is WINNT.EXE.

Features

Specific cool things about NT include:

Stability - WinNT is more stable and secure than the W9x OSes.
New Registry - so fundamentally different from the W9x systems that there is no direct upgrade possible. WinNT does away (almost) entirely with .INI files--all configuration data is kept in the Registry.
Multiple platforms and support for other OSes
Multitasking and multithreading
Security
Built-in Networking
Big hard storage stuff is okay (large capacity for memory and disks)
Multiple Protocol Support (TCP/IP, NetBEUI, NWLink, DLC, AppleTalk, etc)

Most implementations of NT use the new file system called NTFS, which is incompatible with FAT16 or FAT32. Rather than having a File Allocation Table, it has a Master File Table and many other capabilities, like software-based RAID support (like stripe sets and volume sets), and file-level security.

Note: The one area where NT lags behind Windows 9x and 2000 is in PnP support.

NT Server

NT Server is:

Maximized for delivering files to clients, printing, performing centralized administrative tasks in the domain
Supports a theoretically unlimited number of simultaneous connections.
The base server system upon which specialized software can be run, such as SQL Server (advanced database), Exchange Server (Email management), SMS Server (remote management), SNA Server (interface with mainframes), and IIS (Inter- or intranet services).

On install, NT Server can be designated as a Domain Controller (participating in Domain security and access control) or as a Member Server (for storing and distributing data upon request).

NT Workstation

NT Workstation is:

Maximized for running process-intense, number crunching applications locally.
Limited to ten simultaneous connections, which enables it to operate either as a client in a Domain or as a resource in a Peer-to-Peer setting.

Most of the security and utility functions of NT Server are also available on NT Workstation in a scaled-down or localized form. Users may be managed and performance can be tracked, but only for the machine itself.

http://support.microsoft.com/directory/content.asp?ID=FH;EN-US;ntw40&FR=0&SD=GN&LN=EN-US&CT=SD&SE=NONA

Installing Windows NT

Installation procedures for Intel/CISC machines fall into two basic types:

A single, local install from CD-ROM, or
A single or multiple install from a remote machine through a shared network directory.

Hardware Requirements and Recommendations

The minimum and recommended requirements to install NT4 Workstation are as follows (Note: NEVER go with the minimum. Consider the "recommended" as real minimum!):

	Min Required	Recommended
Processor	486	Pentium
Memory	12 MB	16MB
Display	VGA	SVGA
Disk Space	110 MB free space	250-300 free
Others	CDROM, floppy, or NIC	NIC

Installation Process

The first step in installing Windows NT4 is to check the Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) to make sure the hardware platform is compliant with Microsoft requirements. All peripheral devices must be on the HCL as well. Primarily this means that proven, tested device drivers (which translate commands from the OS to the device) are available and approved.

To install NT Workstation to a single PC, locate the three 1.44 MB floppy disks and the CD that contains the system files. Boot the machine from the floppy marked "Setup Boot Disk". You will be prompted to insert disk 2, and then disk 3. This loads enough of the OS so that the system files from the CD can be obtained and copied.
Insert the CD, and follow the prompts that follow.
(Note: It's a good idea to have a blank 1.44 MB floppy handy, as during Setup you will be given the option to make an Emergency Recovery Disk. Use this option.)
The faster option for a single, and the only way for a multiple installation, is to write the system files over the network. This can be directly from a CD-ROM drive on a server, with a share created for the i386 directory, but even faster is by loading the contents of the i386 directory onto the server's HDD and sharing that.
At the client machine(s), run either WINNT.EXE (for a new installation) or WINNT32.EXE (for an upgrade from NT 3.51 or for a reinstall of NT4--this is a 32-bit app and runs faster on a machine previously set up as 32-bit). WINNT32 Switches:

/B - Put boot files on hard drive instead of using boot floppies (takes an extra 4-5MB of hard disk space).
/S - Specify source file location(s) - multiple locations will speed up installation.
/U - Specify answer file location for use with unattended installation - MUST be used with /s to specify source file location(s).
/T - Specifies location of temp directory created for install (/t:<path>).
/OX - Create the setup disks from CD-ROM or shared network folder. Used to replace damaged boot disks.
/F - Don't verify files. Can speed up installation.
/C - Don't check for free space when creating boot disks.
/I - Specify setup information (.inf) file. This file tells setup how to run. The default name is DOSNET.INF.

Note: A RISC-based box must be installed from a CD-ROM. Before beginning, consult the manual for the procedure on how to start programs from a CD drive--differences exist among the various types. For a fresh installation, run SETUPLDR.EXE; an upgrade of a previous installation again takes WINNT32.EXE.
Regardless of the type of installation, you will be prompted for information during the process. The alternative, and the best for multiple install, is to provide an Answer file and a Uniqueness Database File. These provide the Setup application with configurations and settings automatically. Information you will need in these files or in person include:
The Product ID number; can be on the CD case, the manual, or a separate card
A NetBIOS name of 15 characters or less; must be unique to each machine
A Domain and/or Workgroup name, depending on which the PC will connect to
Administrator password--14 characters or less; should be the same on all machines in the network to avoid migraines
Which protocols to install. TCP/IP is the default, but NetBEUI or NWlink (for connectivity with Novell NetWare servers) may be required as well.
NIC settings--IRQ, I/O base port address, DMA, shared memory, and type of cable interface (the Express option will install the first NIC it finds, load default settings, and ask for confirmation. Custom install provides the option to do this or select the card and the settings manually).
Local printer name and port--optional.

Windows NT Boot Files

NTLDR (loader file)
NTDETECT.COM (recognizes hardware)
BOOT.INI (OS menu)
BOOTSECT.DOS (alt boot sector)
NTOSKRNL.EXE (kernel)
HAL.DLL
SYSTEM32\CONFIG (hive, registry)
SYSTEM\32\DRIVERS\*.SYS (boot sequence, drivers)
NTBOOTDD.SYS (SCSI disk driver)

Upgrading to Windows NT 4.0

You cannot directly upgrade from Windows 9x – the OSes are too different. It is possible to upgrade an existing NT 3.1 or NT 3.51 installation to NT 4.0, and retain all preferences, security information, and application data. (Always back up all data before doing so!) It is NOT possible to upgrade Windows 95 or 98 directly to NT. The Registries are too dissimilar in structure.

Control Panel

Control Panel is the main configuration tool for managing the user environment and the system environment (system settings). One machine may store separate local user profiles so that each user who logs on is given his own settings for the Desktop, applications, printers, Taskbar, Favourites, and History. If the user has no local profile, a call to the server will deliver his roaming profile if the user has one stored; otherwise a Default user profile is loaded.

Windows 9x:

If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.

Icons in the Control Panel represent utilities including:

Add/Remove Programs - a wizard walk-through for installing or modifying applications
Add/Remove Hardware - a wizard walk-through for installing or modifying hardware and plug n play devices
Network settings--local IP address, computer name, Domain/Workgroup name, names and IP addresses of DNS, WINS, DHCP servers, and hardware settings for NIC
Peripheral devices - configure the Keyboard, Mouse, Modems, Game Controllers
Internet Options – configure home page, history, internet security
Multimedia - manage settings for audio, video
ODBC – manage database connectivity
Display settings - controls resolution, refresh rate, colours used, wallpaper, screensavers
Printers and Ports--comm settings for serial ports; install, remove and set printer options (notice this is a shortcut)
Power Management – standby and power scheme settings
Fonts--add and remove font selections, toggle TrueType
Date and time - duh
SCSI - handles Small Computer System Interface settings for SCSI controllers, tape drives (if you have a SCSI host adapter)
Services - starts, stops and pauses various services
System - system startup settings, system environment variables, virtual memory settings, recovery options, and multitasking settings

In NT:

User Manager – (NT) creates, edits, and views user profile information. Sets user permissions, local group permissions, and local system policies. Two permanent user accounts are set by default--Administrator and Guest. These can be changed but never deleted.
Disk Administrator – (NT) formats the HDD(s), sets partitions, chooses file systems.
UPS - configures uninterrupted power supply.

In 2000:

Folder Options – settings for all folders
Users and Passwords – where you set “Users must enter a username and password to use this computer” and “Require users to press Crtl-Alt-Del before logging on”
Administrative Tools Folder shortcut (also Start -> Programs -> Admin Tools)

Windows 2000 Control Panel:

Windows 2000 Admin Tools:

Read more about using the Windows 2000 Control Panel

User and Group Accounts in NT

User Accounts are managed in User Manager for Domains (NT Server) or User Manager (NT Workstation). Only local groups and users may be viewed, created and edited in User Manager. A local group and the permissions set for it will only apply to the local machine and its resources, whether accessed at the machine or over the network. The permissions of a global group can apply to any number of machines in the Domain.

The clearest method of access control is to put users into global groups at the server--add global groups to local groups as needed--and manage the permissions of the local group. Giving permissions directly to users can lead to conflicts and should be avoided.
There are two user accounts created by default

Administrator
Guest

Both these accounts may be modified but never deleted. Both these accounts represent a possible security hole if not modified. Both should at least be renamed, and the Guest account should remain disabled if not needed.
NOTE: Every account created is associated with a SID (Security Identifier) which is (supposedly) "unique in all space and all time". When the account is modified, even renamed and reconfigured, the SID remains identical. If the account is deleted and then reconstructed exactly--username, password, permissions, everything--the SID is not. As NT sees the new account, it is completely different. (Headaches have sprung from this one...)

A user name must be unique, and should be descriptive. A good idea is to set a naming convention for usernames, such as first initial, last name, and location/job code. (e.g. ckent8cb might mean Clark Kent, 8th floor, City beat)
Usernames must be 20 characters or less, without these: \"/][|;:><,.?*+=
Full Name is optional, but handy in large enterprises
Description is optional; again handy for managing large numbers of users
Password is case-sensitive (brainbug is different from BrainBug) and can be up to 14 characters in length. A good password is at least 8 characters and includes lower case, capitals, numerals, and symbols. (e.g. WTH_y0u??, 12gaSH07gun!, CAP741n-who?!, H07Yc0wb4+m4N!....)
Passwords should be easy to remember, but hard to crack. It can be done.
Account options can adjust security levels as needed.
User Must Change Password--if the Admin has assigned or reassigned the user's password, this enables the user to access his account but must change the password at the next logon.
User Cannot Change Password--good for an account that numbers of people must access; also for assigning lazy users tough passwords (instead of their birth date or licence plate).
Password Never Expires--good for accounts used by NT services such as Backup, or the Anonymous account used by IIS for FTP access.
Account Disabled--useful for guarding the account of a user on vacation, or when an account is set up perfectly and the user must be replaced. Deleting and recreating accounts is not as good when users are replaced; a better move is to disable and then rename the account when needed.

It is useful to make a template of accounts that will be allowed similar access permissions. Set up an account with the desired configurations and Copy it when needed. All settings except username, full name, "account disabled", and password transfer over.

Profile button is used to specify a Home Directory to contain the user's personal settings, applications, and working folders/data files. It can also set up a logon script to connect the user automatically to the parts of the network the user normally accesses.
Dial-in is for configuring the user's Remote Access settings. By default, there are five group accounts installed in User Manager.

Seldom is it necessary to create groups--the defaults cover a good range of requirements.

Administrators - not the Administrator account, but a local group that users may be added to which gives full power to make changes in the Domain or Workgroup as well as locally.
Power Users - membership in this group allows several administrative powers beyond normal user but short of Administrator. Most useful are the right to access the PC from the network, create and manage user accounts, and manage shares on printers, files and folders. (Unique to NT Workstation--not available on NT Server.)
Backup Operators - gives the rights necessary to access directories and files to back them up into storage.
Users - allows rights necessary to operate the machine, such as log on locally, shut down the PC, and create/manage local group and user accounts.
Guest - again, not the Guest account, but a local group which users may be added to for access to the machine or domain. This group has no default rights; they must be added as required.

On an NT Server, several other local groups are added as default, such as Server Operator, Account Operator, Print Operator (no Power User), and three global groups--Domain Administrators, Domain Users, and Domain Guests.

All these groups have built-in, predefined, unchangeable abilities, and default, modifiable user rights. These are controlled from the User Rights Policy box accessed from the Policy drop-down.

Account Policies regarding password age and length, lockout settings, and enforcing logon hours are accessed from Account in the Policy drop-down.

Adding user accounts to group accounts (or removing them) is managed by selecting the group account and clicking the User, Properties drop-down.

Troubleshooting Windows NT4

Several built-in utilities exist in NT4 for detecting and diagnosing problems before and after they occur. These are also useful for optimizing performance. Just because these are so fun to play with is no reason to forget the basics--always check the connections and cables first, in case of a catastrophic failure. In case of a more minor problem, check Event Viewer.

Event Viewer- has three separate logs to inspect:

Application - logs all information pertinent to the running of applications, including failures.
Security - records policy changes, logon and access attempts; may be used to audit file and directory access if enabled in the Properties for these. Auditing causes a small overall performance drop, so use only when necessary.
System - shows all significant system activity. After checking connections, the System log should be your first step in diagnosis

Log items are marked with a blue I for routine informational items, a ! in yellow for events worth watching, and a red stop sign for items which may be critical to operation, such as the failure of a service to start.

Filtering is available to narrow the events listed, and is in the View drop-down.
Events may be filtered by date/time, event ID, event type, user, and the event source. As hundreds of system events are logged per hour, narrowing the items viewed is a good idea.

All logs may be recorded as a file, Three options:

In binary form that only Event Viewer can read
Plain readable text, or
Comma-delimited text that can port to an Excel spreadsheet.

Windows NT Diagnostics - in Administrative Tools, or WINMSD.EXE from the command line, provides a snapshot of all important system configurations. No editing is possible, but everything about the system is viewable from here.

Performance Monitor - provides a finely controllable EEG-like view (by default) of all aspects of system operation. Other views available are histogram (bar graph), report (numeric average), and alert, which can broadcast an admin alert over the network or be set to run a program when specified thresholds are crossed (such as less than 10% HDD capacity remaining).

Perfmon allows selection of:

Objects--HDD, memory, processor; also processes, threads, pagefile, cache, system, browser, and more. When a utility is added (such as SNMP) it will add objects to the Perfmon list.
Counters--specific aspects of the object chosen, such as Memory: page hits, page faults, page-ins, page-outs, allocated memory, unused memory, etc.
Instances--specific occurrences of counters--page faults per sec, total page faults, "hard" and "soft" page faults...

Perfmon may be logged over time and used to establish a baseline of normal performance to compare against any abnormal activity.

Task Manager - provides a quick and handy method of checking the system status and managing applications. Right-click on the taskbar or press Ctrl-Alt-Esc to invoke it. TaskMan has three tabbed pages to view:

Application - shows all running programs, and may be used to shut down any that are unresponsive by usual means.
Processes--shows all running processes and resources used by each. The priority of these may be changed here.
Performance--a rough look at CPU and memory usage in real-time. Good for a quick overview and to identify if Perfmon is needed.

Check out:

http://www.i386.com/default.asp?page=pages&category=ADMIN&keyword=booting

http://www-csag.ucsd.edu/projects/comm/ntrsc.html

No exp with NT? Check out these demos

http://www.exitnow.com/skillbuilder/viewlets/windowsnt4.htm

NT Boot Problems

If experiencing boot problems, do not log on. Same thing applies to Windows 2000. Upon logon, the boot process is completed, and parts of the registry are backed up as being good. It's even called "LastKnownGood" (not a reference to a bachelor party BTW). So instead of logging on and saving a corrupt controlset key to the Registry, reboot and hammer the spacebar, which will restore the LastKnownGood settings to the current Registry. Choose a hardware configuration and press L. This may also work if editing the Registry directly causes those instant problems previously warned about, or if a corrupt driver is loaded and crashes the system.

If the bootup fails completely, pull out the three boot disks and the Emergency Repair Disk created on installation (and hopefully kept current). The ERD is not a boot disk. It contains compressed Registry files and a program which extracts and overwrites them into the damaged Registry.

Read More on Using RDISK /S to create ERDs in NT 4.):

http://www.cert.org/security-improvement/implementations/i028.01.html

Note: The ERD is made or updated by running RDISK.EXE (the /S switch is recommended--it updates security and account information). Click either Create or Update Repair Disk ("Create" requires a preformatted floppy). It is possible to run over the capacity of a single 1.44MB disk; RDISK prompts for another if so.

The boot disks may be produced after installation by running WINNT32.EXE with the /OX switch. This does not reinstall the OS, it just makes the floppies.

The BOOT.INI file--about the only .INI file NT uses--will need editing if the system partition (the one with the boot files--not the boot partition, with the system files. True.) changes. The RASH (Read, Archive, System, Hidden) attributes will have to be removed to edit it, and restored after. Remember that the controller and disk values begin at 0, and the partition numbering begins at 1. Error messages involving NTLDR or NTOSKRNL are your clue that BOOT.INI needs attention.

Read more on Troubleshooting Startup and disk problems:

http://www.microsoft.com/TechNet/winnt/reskit/troubles.asp

Troubleshooting Printers

Printers (or Print Devices in NT lingo) are another story in themselves. The first things to check are always the physical side:

Is the printer on?
Is it out of paper?
Is there a paper jam inside?
Is the cable connection secure?

When NT workstation sends a print request to an NT server, the server automatically checks the client for the correct printer driver. If not present, or if out of date, the server downloads the printing software to the client. The driver is rarely the problem between NT systems.

As with everything else NT, different groups and users can have different levels of rights assigned. Different printer shares may vary as to rights granted. Each user or group can have different priorities, or scheduled hours of use. Any or all of these may cause a problem.

If the printing process is running slowly, check to see that the drive the spool directory is on has enough space. By default this is in the same partition as the system files; this can only be changed in the Registry by directly editing. Keep the printer spool drive defragmented.

Note: As NT has no native defrag utility, this is done by hand or with a third-party application.

In the case of complete printing failure, try:

Stopping and restarting the spooling service may clear the jam.
Deleting and reinstalling the printer is a last resort--all the shares, rights, and other settings will have to be redone.

Logging and auditing may be enabled for printers. These entries are sent to Event Viewer, and can be filtered for easier inspection.

Note: Much of the Troubleshooting in NT is the same for Windows 2000.

Windows 2000

Windows 2000 (Win2K for short) is another leap from the previous versions of Windows in that it basically combines the best parts of all its predecessors.

Versions

There are four versions of Windows 2000 (though you really need only deal with what is common to all of them, and the first one in particular):

Windows 2000 Professional – desktop/client OS ***
Windows 2000 Server – server platform
Windows 2000 Advanced Server – enterprise edition
Windows 2000 Datacenter Server – most powerful server

Read more about Server vs. Professional:

http://www.microsoft.com/technet/chats/trans/sw20620.asp

Features

Windows 2000 provides built-in networking support
Full Internet integration
Customizable Admin Tools and Start Menu (a learning menu)
Better Hardware support – good PnP support, compatibility between 98 and 2000 drivers
USB support
File System support for FAT32, FAT16, NTFS4, and NTFS5 (default)
Backup Options – including a utility for scheduled backups (Task Scheduler)
Kerberos authentication protocol and Smart Cards for security (file level encryption and user identification for Internet access)
VPN and remote/mobile user access
IPP (Internet Printing Protocol)

Installing Windows 2000

There are three ways to install Windows 2000:

From the Win2K setup floppies, then loading files from the CDROM
Booting from the CD
Connecting to the network server and installing from shared location

Windows 2000 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations

	Min Required	Recommended
Processor	Pentium 133 (Ha! Good one, Bill)	Pentium 350 MHz
Memory	64 MB	128 MB
Display	VGA	SVGA
Disk Space	650 free MB, 2 GB available	2 GB free, 6.4 GB available
Others	Floppy drive, keyboard, mouse, 12x CDROM (not req’d if installing over a network)	24x CDROM, floppy, PCI NIC

All devices should be on the Win2K Hardware Compatibility List (HCL) – HCL.TXT file is in the SUPPORT folder on the Windows 2000 CD.

Windows 2000 Partitions

Windows 2000 can be installed on an existing Partition or a new one. The Setup program allows you to choose (select, create, delete) partitions for the OS only. Partitions must be at least 650 MB, but 1 GB is recommended.

Leaving FDISK behind now, you can create partitions using the Disk Management Utility after Install.

If your browser doesn't support inline frames click HERE to view the full-sized graphic.

Domain or Workgroup Selection

Windows 2000 ships with built-in networking. Win2K allows workstations to operate as members of workgroups and domains.

A Workgroup is a group of computers operating as a P2P network sharing resources and connections and user-level security at the workstation.
A Domain is a collection of computers sharing the same security database (Active Directory service) with user accounts and domain security information.

Before the Installation, you will need:

Domain name in your DNS (Domain Name System) on your server
Computer account within the domain
Domain Controller and DNS Server (Win2K Server must have a Domain Controller, which holds the user account and validates logins on the DNS Server.)

Installation Process

Depending on the type of installation (network, local) you may also need to

What is an OS?

Functions

Components

Command Prompt (DOS)

DOS System Files

Memory Management

Architecture

Command Prompt Utilities

Command Prompt Commands and Syntax

Checking Drives

Partitioning Drives

Windows 3.x

Windows 9x

Installing Windows 9x

Windows 95 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations

Windows 98 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations

Installation Process

Failed Install

Emergency Startup Disk

Upgrading to Windows 9x

Boot Sequence of Windows 9x

Startup Menu

Registry

Navigation

Windows File Management

Windows Keyboard Shortcuts to know

Backups

Configuring Windows 9x

Drivers

Printers

Memory Management

Windows 9x Utilities

Troubleshooting Windows 9x

Troubleshooting procedures

Common Errors and Problems

Invalid Page Faults

Common Problems

Troubleshooting Printer Connections and Configurations

Windows NT 4.0

History of NT

Versions

Features

NT Server

Installing Windows NT

Hardware Requirements and Recommendations

Installation Process

Windows NT Boot Files

Upgrading to Windows NT 4.0

User and Group Accounts in NT

NT Boot Problems

Windows 2000

Versions

Features

Installing Windows 2000

Windows 2000 Hardware Requirements/Recommendations

Windows 2000 Partitions

Domain or Workgroup Selection

Installation Process

Upgrading to Windows 2000

Boot Sequence of Windows 2000

Advanced Options Menu

Windows 2000 Required Boot Files

Administering Windows 2000

Disk Management and Resources

Volume Sets

User and Group Management

User Accounts

Groups

Managing Security

Auditing

Troubleshooting Windows 2000

Windows 2000 Utilities

Start -> Control Panel

Other Win2K Utilities

NT/2000 Registry

Windows 98 REGEDIT:

Windows 2000 REGEDIT32

Major Differences Between Windows Versions

Windows 9x

Windows NT